US20030083804A1

US20030083804A1 - Computer human methods for the control and management of an airport

Info

Publication number: US20030083804A1
Application number: US09/871,328
Authority: US
Inventors: Harold Pilley; Lois Wortley
Original assignee: H. Robert Pilley
Current assignee: ROBERT PILLEY H
Priority date: 1990-10-09
Filing date: 2001-05-31
Publication date: 2003-05-01
Also published as: US6314363B1; US20040225432A1; US6195609B1

Abstract

An Airport Control and Management Method for use by an air traffic controller which provides for a GNSS compatible computer processing environment which supports airport control and management functions in the air and on the ground. The computer system provides for automation and a computer human interface supporting air traffic controller functions. The processing environment is based upon GNSS compatible position, velocity, time information and GNSS spatially compatible databases. The computer human interface combines the data entry role of issuing clearances with automated routing, conformance monitoring and lighting control functions. The system and methods utilize precise GNSS compatible zones, the Earth Centered Earth Fixed (ECEF) WGS-84 coordinate reference frame, GNSS compatible local coordinate frames such as local and state plane grids, travel path information management processes which allow for the intelligent control of airport lighting systems. True airport independent processing is achieved when the ECEF coordinate reference frame is utilized. The system utilizes broadcast Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) information from participating aircraft and vehicles Although the processing methods may be employed using other surveillance information derived from radar ot multi-lateration sources with some degradation in performance due to radar inaccuracies and inability to produce accurate 3-dimensional GNSS compatible velocity. Radio receiving equipment receives the broadcast ADS information which is then supplied to the computer system. The computer system utilizes GNSS compatible position and velocity data to control the operation of airport lights using zone incursion processing methods. The methods and processes employed provide a fundamental framework for increased airport safety, operational efficiency, energy savings and improved automation resulting in reduced controller workload.

Description

BACKGROUND

1. Field of the Invention

This invention is a Divisional Application of application 09/598,001 filing date Jun. 20, 2000 which is Divisional Application of application Ser. No. 09/032,313 filing date Feb. 27, 1998 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,195,609, a Divisional Application of Application Ser. No. 08/524,081 filing date Sep. 6, 1995 now U.S. Pat. No. 5,867,804, from Document Disclosure # 360870 dated Sep. 2, 1994, Book “GPS Based Airport Operations, Requirements, Algorithms and Analysis, Publication Date Sep. 14, 1994, Copyright Registration Nov. 10, 1994 and a continuation in part of Ser. No. 08/117,920 filed Sep. 7, 1993 now U.S. Pat. No. 5,548,515 issued Aug. 20, 1996 and application Ser. No. 08/651,837, which is a continuation in part of Ser. No 369,273 filed Jan. 5, 1995, now U.S. Pat. No. 574,648 issued Nov. 12, 1996 which is a continuation of Ser. No. 859,681, Jun. 9, 1992, abandoned, which is a continuation in part of Ser. No. 758,852 filed as PCT/US91/07575 Sep. 10, 1991, abandoned which is a continuation-in-part of Ser. No. 593,214, Oct. 9, 1990 now U.S. Pat. No. 5,200,902 issued Apr. 6, 1993.

This invention supports the control and management of surface and airborne vehicles using a computer human interface for a controller and vehicle operator supported by computer automation using Global Satellite Navigation System data, various surveillance information, seamless globally applicable computer automation processing techniques and compatible spatial and temporal databases. The GNSS compatible computer human interface method supports the use various surveillance system information and data links for the purpose of control, management, conformance monitoring, display presentations and other airport functions.

2. Description of Prior Art

Today's airport terminal operations are complex and varied from airport to airport. Airports today are, in many cases, the limiting factor in aviation system capacity. Each airport has a unique set of capacity limiting factors which may include; limited tarmac, runways, suitable approaches, navigational or/and Air Traffic Control (ATC) facilities. Furthermore, operational requirements in the terminal area involve all facets of aviation, communication, navigation and surveillance. The satisfaction of these requirements with technological/procedural solutions should be based upon three underlying principles; improved safety, improved capacity and cost effectiveness.

Today airport air traffic control procedures and general airport aviation operations are based on procedures from the 1950's. These air traffic control procedures were initially developed to separate aircraft while in the air. The initial separation surveillance system was a radar system consisting of a rotating radar antenna. The antenna rotated typically about once every 4.8 seconds while transmitting a signal, another receiving antenna picks up a reflected signal from a target. The surveillance system then calculated a range (based on transit time) and an azimuth angle based on the physical orientation of the antenna. The 2-dimensional position was then usually plotted on a display with other detected targets, objects and clutter. Radar today relies on faster rotating antennas or electronically scanned antennas to provide more frequent updates and higher resolution. To further enhance the performance of the target returns, provide altitude information and an identifier, a transponder is used on the aircraft. The transponder is the key element in radar surveillance systems, since without it no identification and no altitude information is provided to the air traffic control system.

Surveillance data from multiple surveillance systems (radars) is then discretely mosaiced or “tiled” into a Semi-continuous system. Controllers today separate traffic visually by the rule of “green in between” the target tracks. This is a highly manual method for separation of aircraft, placing stress on the controllers and limits any true automation assistance for the controller.

In the high density and high precision airport environment numerous single function airport systems have been developed over the years to support air traffic control and pilot needs. Precise landing navigation is currently provided by the Instrument Landing System (ILS), while airside navigation is provided by VOR/DME, LORAN and NDB's. Airport air traffic controller surveillance is provided thorough visual means, airport surface detection radar (ASDE), secondary surveillance radar, parallel runway monitoring radar and in some cases primary radar. Each of these systems is single function, local in nature and operation and provides accuracy which is a function of distance to the object being tracked. Merging these navigation and surveillance systems into a 4-dimensional seamless airport environment is technically difficult and expensive. MIT Lincoln Laboratories is attempting to provide an improved radar based Air Traffic Control environment and has received three U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,374,932, 5,519,618 and 5,570,095 reflecting those efforts. These patents relate to improvements of the current localized surveillance and navigation airport environment without the use of GNSS compatible seamless techniques as described herein by Pilley.

These localized systems have served the aviation system well for nearly 50 years and numerous mishaps have been prevented over this period through their use. With the advent of new multi-function technologies superior performance is available at a fraction of the cost of today's current single function systems. The technologies of Global Navigation Satellite Systems, digital communication and low cost commercial computers can support seamless 4-dimensional airport operations at smaller airports unable to justify the heavy financial investment in today's single function navigation and surveillance systems.

Others are also demonstrating and developing similar systems. Haken Lans (GP&C) of Sweden is demonstrating the use of Differential GPS with Self Organizing Time Division Multiple Access datalink communications. The invention of Haken Lans is described in World Intellectual Property Organization document #93/01576. The invention of Fraughton describes an airborne system for collision avoidance in U.S. Pat. No. 5,153,836. The inventions of Lans and Fraughton fail to provide the seamless 4 dimensional GNSS compatible operational and processing environment of Pilley.

Background of the Inventor

The inventor having been involved with the FAA's Advanced Automation System became aware that airport program segments were not getting the attention they deserved, nor were advanced technologies being investigated. The inventor set out to demonstrate that new technologies could be used to support seamless airport navigation and surveillance. The multi-year efforts of the inventors are summarized in the book titled:

GPS BASED AIRPORT OPERATIONS, Requirements, Analysis, Algorithms US copyright # TX 3 926 573, (Library of Congress # 94-69078), (ISBN 0-9643568-0-5). This book provides much of the back ground for this patent application. In addition to the book the following publications and professional papers have been published by the inventor in efforts of due diligence to promote this life saving technology.

Publications

Institute of Navigation, ION GPS-91, Sep. 12, 1991, Technical Paper, “Airport Navigation and Surveillance Using GPS and ADS”.

GPS WORLD Magazine, 10-91, Article, “GPS, Aviation and Airports the Integrated Solution”.

71st Transportation Research Board, Annual Meeting, Jan. 14, 1992, Technical Paper, “Applications of Satellite CNS in the Terminal Area”.

Institute of Navigation National Technical Meeting, Jan. 28, 1992, Technical Paper, “Terminal Area Surveillance Using GPS”.

Institute of Navigation, ION GPS-92, Technical Paper, “Collision Prediction and Avoidance Using Enhanced GPS”.

Institute of Navigation, 49th Annual Meeting, June 1993, Technical Paper, “Runway Incursion Avoidance Using GPS”.

Airport Surface Traffic Automation Technical Information Group FAA & Industry Forum, Jul. 15, 1993, Presentation.

Commercial Aviation News, Jul. 19, 1993, “Airport Test to Look at Collision Avoidance”.

IEEE Vehicle Navigation and Intelligent Vehicle (VNIS), Conference, Oct. 14, 1993, Technical Paper, “Demonstration Results of

GPS for Airport Surface Control and Management”. Institute of Navigation, ION GPS-93, Sep. 23, 1993, Technical Paper,

“GPS for Airport Surface Guidance and Traffic Management”. Avionics Magazine, 10-93, “Differential GPS Runway Navigation System Demonstrated”.

IEEE PLANS '94, April 1994, Technical Paper, “GPS, 3-D Maps and ADS Provide A Seamless Airport Control and Management Environment”.

Institute of Navigation, ION GPS-94, Sep. 22, 1994, Technical Paper, DGPS for Seamless Airport Operations”.

Presentation Seattle, Wash., May 9, 1995. International Civil Aviation Organization of the United Nations, Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control (SMGCS) meeting, Presentation and demonstration “GPS based SMGCS”.

As the list of presentations and publications shows the inventors have been active in getting the government and the aviation community to accept this life saving cost effective airport technology.

The United States alone currently contains some 17,000 airports, heliports and seabases. Presently only the largest of these can justify the investment in dedicated navigation and surveillance systems while the vast majority of smaller airports have neither. Clearly, a new approach is required to satisfy aviation user, airport operator, airline and ATC needs.

It would therefore be an advance in the art to provide a cost effective Airport Control and Management System which would provide navigation, surveillance, collision prediction, zone/runway incursion and automated airport lighting control based on the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) as the primary position and velocity sensor on board participating vehicles. It would be still a further advance of the art if this system were capable of performing the navigation, surveillance, collision prediction, lighting control and zone/runway incursion both on board the aircraft/vehicles and at a remote ATC, or other monitoring site.

With the advent of new technologies such as the Global Positioning System, communication and computer technology, the application of new technologies to the management of our airports can provide improved efficiency, enhanced safety and lead to greater profitability for our aviation industry and airport operators.

On Aug. 12, 1993, Deering System Design Consultants, Inc. (DSDC) of Deering, N.H., successfully demonstrated their Airport Control & Management System (AC&M) to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). After many years of development efforts, the methods and processes described herein were demonstrated to Mike Harrison of the FAAts Runway Incursion Office, officials from the FAA's Satellite Program Office, the FAA New England Regional Office, the Volpe National Transportation System Center, the New Hampshire Department of Transportation, the Office of U.S. Senator Judd Gregg and the Office of U.S. Representative Dick Swett. This was the first time such concepts were reduced to a working demonstrable system. The inventor has taken an active stand to promote the technology in a public manner and, as such, may have informed others to key elements of this application. The inventor has promoted this technology. The inventor's airports philosophy has been described in general terms to the aviation industry since it was felt industry and government awareness was necessary. The intent of this Continuation application to identify and protect through letters of Patent techniques, methods and improvements to the demonstrated system.

With these and other objects in view, as will be apparent to those skilled in the art, the improved airport control and management invention stated herein is unique, novel and promotes the public well being.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention most generally is a system and a method for the control of surface and airborne traffic within a defined space envelope. GNSS-based, or GPS based data is used to define and create a 3-dimensional map, define locations, to compute trajectories, speeds, velocities, static and dynamic regions and spaces or volumes (zones) including zones identified as forbidden zones. Databases are also created, which are compatible with the GNSS data. Some of these databases may contain, vehicle information such as type and shape, static zones including zones specific to vehicle type which are forbidden to the type of vehicle, notice to airmen (notams) characterized by the information or GNSS data. The GNSS data in combination with the databases is used, for example, by air traffic control, to control and manage the flow of traffic approaching and departing the airport and the control of the flow of surface vehicles and taxiing aircraft. All or a selected group of vehicles may have GNSS receivers. Additionally, all or a selected group may have bi-directional digital data and voice communications between vehicles and also with air traffic control. All of the data is made compatible for display on a screen or selected screens for use and observation including screens located on selected vehicles and aircraft. Vehicle/aircraft data may be compatibly superimposed with the 3-dimensional map data and the combination of data displayed or displayable may be manipulated to provide selected viewing. The selected viewing may be in the form of choice of the line of observation, the viewing may be by layers based upon the data and the objective for the use of the data.

It is, therefore, an object of this invention to provide the following:

1.) A 4-D process logic flow which provides a “seamless” airport environment on the ground and in the air anywhere in the world with a common 3-D coordinate reference and time

2.) An Airport Control and Management Method and System which utilizes GNSS, 3-D maps, precise waypoint navigation based on the ECEF reference frame, a digital full duplex communication link and a comprehensive array of processing logic methods implemented in developed operational software

3.) An Airport Control and Management Method and System where a vehicle based 4-D navigational computer and ATC computer utilize the same coordinate reference and precise time standard.

4.) A database management method compatible with 3-D waypoint storage and presentation in 3-D digital maps.

5.) A automated method utilizing the precise 3-D airport map for the definition and creation of airport routes and travel ways.

6.) A 4-D process logic flow which provides precise vehicle waypoint navigation in the air and on the ground. This process allows for monitoring of on or off course conditions for vehicles and aircraft operating within the airport space envelope on board the vehicle.

7.) A 4-D process logic flow which provides precise ATC waypoint navigation mirroring of actual vehicles in the air and on the ground at ATC. This process allows for monitoring of on or off course conditions for vehicles and aircraft operating within the airport space envelope at the ATC computer

8.) A 4-D process logic flow performed on board the vehicle which provides for precise collision prediction based on 3-dimensional zones

9.) A4-D process logic flow performed at the ATC computer which provides for precise collision prediction based on 3-dimensional zones

10.) A collision detection management method which utilizes the application of false alarm reducing methods

11.) An ATC process logic flow which detects 3-D runway incursions. The process logic then generates message alerts and controls airport lights

12.) An ATC zone management method which utilizes the application of false alarm reducing methods

13.) A vehicle process logic flow which detects 3-D runway incursions. The process logic then generates message alerts and sounds tones within the vehicle or aircraft

14.) A vehicle zone management method which utilizes the application of false alarm reducing methods

15.) A 4-D ATC process logic flow which manages ground and air “Clearances” with precise waypoint navigation aboard the vehicle and at the ATC computer.

16.) A 4-D ATC process logic flow which manages ground and air “Clearances” incorporating an integrated system of controlling airport lights.

17.) A 4-D vehicle process logic flow which manages ground and air “Clearances” with an integrated system of waypoint navigation.

18.) A method of management for 3-D spatial constructs called zones

19.) A method of management for 3-D graphical constructs called zones

20.) A method of management for the automated generation of a zones database at any airport

21.) A database management method for the storage of zones data. Zones database management methods are used aboard the vehicle and at ATC

22.) A operational management method where the ATC computer provides navigational instructions to vehicles and aircraft. The instructions result in a travel path with clear paths defined being displayed in an airport map

23.) A operational management method where the ATC computer provides navigational instructions to vehicles and aircraft The instructions result in waypoints being entered into a 4-D navigation computer

24.) A datalink message content which supports the above management methods and processes

25.) A redundant system architecture which satisfies life critical airport operations

26.) Methods for navigation within the airport environment using map displays, controller clearances and automation techniques in the cockpit and at ATC

27.) An integrated airport controller automation interface which supports GNSS compatible processing.

28.) A method for managing GNSS travel path information, clearances and conformance monitoring using broadcast GNSS trajectory information and automatic dependent surveillance.

More specifically, the elements mentioned above form the process framework of the invention stated herein

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

The invention, may be best understood by reference to one of its structural forms, as illustrated by the accompanying drawings, in which: [0064]
FIG. 1 depicts the high-level Airport Control and Management processing elements and flow [0065]
FIG. 2 represents an example of a cylindrical static zone in a 3-D ALP. This zone could be graphically displayed in a layer of the ALP [0066]
FIG. 3 represents an example of a static zone around a construction area of the airport and is used in zone incursion processing in the vehicles and at the ATC Processor [0067]
FIG. 4 represents an example of a dynamic zone which travels with a moving vehicle, in this case the zone represents the minimum safe clearance spacing which would be used in zone based collision detection processing in the vehicles and at the ATC processor [0068]
FIG. 5 represents an example of a route zone which is defined by navigational waypoints and is used for on/off course processing and is used in the vehicles and at the ATC Processor [0069]
FIG. 6 represents an example of a 3-D ATC zone, used to segregate tracked vehicles to particular ATC stations [0070]
FIG. 7 illustrates the construction of a 3-D runway zone [0071]
FIG. 8 shows a map display with surface waypoints and travel path [0072]
FIG. 9 shows a map display with departure waypoints and travel path [0073]
FIG. 10 illustrates the 4-D collision detection mechanism employed in the Airport Control and Management System [0074]
FIG. 11 depicts a waypoint processing diagram showing the earth and ECEF coordinate system, expanded view of airport waypoints, further expanded view of previous and next waypoint geometry with present position, the cross hair display presentation used in the developed GPS navigator [0075]
FIG. 12 graphs latitude, Longitude plot of a missed approach followed by a touch and go with waypoints indicated about every 20 seconds [0076]
FIG. 13 graphs altitude vs. time for missed approach followed by touch and go, waypoints are indicated about every 20 seconds [0077]
FIG. 14 graphs ECEF X and Y presentation of missed approach followed by a touch and go with waypoints indicated about every 20 seconds [0078]
FIG. 15 graphs ECEF Z versus time of missed approach followed by touch and go, with waypoints about every 20 seconds [0079]
FIG. 16 shows a block diagram of on\off course processing [0080]
FIG. 17 shows a missed approach followed by a touch and go GPS trajectory displayed in a 3-D airport map [0081]
FIG. 18 shows an ECEF navigation screen with navigational window insert and 3-D digital map elements [0082]
FIG. 19 shows the area navigation display with range rings, course and bearing radial lines, and altitude to true course indicators [0083]
FIG. 20 depicts the GPS sliding cross hair landing display indicating too low (go up) and too far right (turn left) [0084]
FIG. 21 illustrates the GPS approach cone with digital map elements showing current position with respect to true course line [0085]
FIG. 22 depicts the demonstration system airport communications diagram showing processor, DGPS base station, radio elements and message flows [0086]
FIG. 23 depicts the demonstration system AC&M hardware block diagram showing various elements of the system [0087]
FIG. 24 depicts the demonstration system aircraft hardware block diagram [0088]
FIG. 25 depicts the demonstration [0089] system vehicle # 1 hardware block diagram
FIG. 26 depicts the demonstration [0090] system vehicle # 2 hardware block diagram
FIG. 27 shows the navigator display compass rose area navigator and cross hair sliding precision approach display in combination with waypoint information, position, velocity, range to the waypoint, cross track error, speed, heading and distance to true course [0091]
FIG. 28 depicts the airport system single controller station, non redundant design [0092]
FIG. 29 depicts the airport system redundant single controller station [0093]
FIG. 30 depicts the airport system redundant dual controller station [0094]
FIG. 31 depicts the map temporal differential correction system diagram [0095]
FIG. 32 depicts the differential GPS system diagram [0096]
FIG. 33 depicts the closed loop differential GPS system diagram [0097]
FIG. 34 depicts the computer human interrface using a touch screen [0098]

DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

AC&M PROCESSING OVERVIEW [0099]
The primary Airport Control and Management (AC&M) functions of the invention utilize a Cartesian ECEF X, Y, Z coordinate frame compatible with GNSS. FIG. 1 provides additional detail for the operational elements of the AC&M processing. The GNSS signals broadcast by the [0100] vehicles 8 are processed by the Real Time Communication Handler 3 and sent to AC&M Operational Control 1. The Operational Control 1 uses the GNSS data to perform the following processing functions 5: position projections, coordinate conversions, zone detection, collision prediction, runway incursion detection, layer filter, alarm control, and lighting control. If waypoints have been issued to the vehicle 8, mirrored waypoint navigation is also performed by the AC&M processing. The Operational Control 1 interfaces directly to the Graphical Control 2. Graphics messages, including GNSS data and coded information pertaining to zone incursions, possible collision conditions, or off course conditions detected by the AC:&M Processing, are passed to the Graphical Control 2. The Graphical Control 2 interprets this data and updates the display presentation accordingly.
The [0101] Operational Control 1 function also receives inputs from the Controller/Operator Interface 6. The controller/Operator Interface uses the data received by Controller/Operator Inputs 7 to compose ATC commands which are sent to the Operational Control 1 function for processing. Commands affecting the presentation on the computer display screen are sent by the Operational Control 1 function to the Graphical Control 2. ATC commands composed by the Controller/Operator Interface 6 processing that do not require further AC&M processing are forwarded directly to the Graphical Control 2 to update the display screen. Both the Operational Control 1 function and Graphical Control 2 processing have access to the Monumentation, Aircraft/Vehicle, Static Zones, Waypoints, Airport Map, ATIS Interface and Airport Status and other low level data bases 9 to process and manipulate the presentation of map and vehicle data on a computer display screen.
More specifically, each [0102] vehicle 8 supports the capability to transmit a minimum of an identifier, the GNSS referenced position of one or more antennas, velocity, optional acceleration and time reports. Since this data is broadcast, it is accessible to the airport control tower, other aircraft and vehicles in the local area, and various airline monitoring or emergency command centers which may perform similar processing functions. ATC commands, processed by the Controller/Operator Interface 6 and Operational Control 1 function are passed to the Real Time Communication Handler 3 for transmission to the aircraft/vehicle(s) 8. Upon receipt of ATC messages, the vehicle(s) 8 return an acknowledgment message which is received by the Real Time communication Handler 3 and passed to the Operational Control 1 function. Differential GNSS corrections are generated by the Differential GPS Processor 4 and passed to the Real Time Communication Handler 3 for broadcast to the vehicles. The Real Time Communication Handler 8 performs the following functions at a minimum:
a. Initialize ATC computer communication lines [0103]
b. Initialize radio equipment [0104]
c. Establish communication links [0105]
d. Receive vehicle identifier, positions, velocity, time and other information [0106]
e. Receive information from ATC Processor to transmit to vehicle(s) [0107]
f. Receive ATC acknowledgment messages from vehicle(s) [0108]
g. Transmit information to all vehicles or to selected vehicles by controlling frequency and/or identifier tags [0109]
h. Monitor errors or new information being transmitted [0110]
i. Receive and broadcast differential correction data [0111]
The AC&M techniques and methods described herein provide for GNSS compatible 4-Dimensional Airport Control and Management. [0112]
THE 3-D DIGITAL AIRPORT LAYOUT PLAN [0113]
The combination of ECEF navigation combined with NAD 83 (Lat, Lon, MSL and State Plane) and WGS 84 (X,Y,Z) based 3-D airport features are necessary in constructing an airport layout plan (ALP). The Airport Control and Management System (AC&M) requires that navigation and Automatic dependent Surveillance (ADS) information used in collision detection processing share the same coordinate frame. The processing methods described herein, require very accurate and properly monumented airport layout plans. Physical features surrounding the airport may be surveyed in a local coordinate frame and, as such, require accurate transformation into the airport map/processing coordinate frame. For these reasons, the use of multi-monumented coordinate references is mandatory for such map construction and survey. Clearly, highly accurate 3-D maps are required when using precise GNSS based navigation, collision avoidance and overall Airport Control and Management for life critical airport applications. [0114]
The 3-D ALP database and display presentation support the concept of zones. The display of zone information is managed using the Map Layer Filter. Zones are two and three dimensional shapes which are used to provide spatial cueing for a number of design constructs. Static zones may be defined around obstacles which may pose a hazard to navigation such as transmission towers, tall buildings, and terrain features. Zones may also be keyed to the airport's NOTAMS, identifying areas of the airport which have restricted usage. Dynamic zones are capable of movement. For example, a dynamic zone may be constructed around moving vehicles or hazardous weather areas. A route zone is a 3-D zone formed along a travel path such as a glide slope. Zone processing techniques are also applied to the management of travel clearances and for the detection of runway incursions. Zones may also be associated with each aircraft or surface vehicle to provide collision prediction information. [0115]
OPERATIONAL PROJECTIONS [0116]

AC&M projection processing utilizes received GNSS ADS messages from a datalink. The complete received message is then checked for errors using CRC error detection techniques or a error correcting code. The message contains the following information, or a subset thereof, but not limited to:



PVT ADS DATA

ID #

	8 Characters
	VEHICLE TYPE
	4 Characters

CURRENT POSITION:

	X=ECEF X Position (M)	10 Characters
	Y=ECEF Y Position (M)	10 Characters
	Z=ECEF Z Position (M)	10 Characters
	X2=ECEF X2 Position (M)	2 Characters *
	Y2=ECEF Y2 Position (M)	2 Characters *
	Z2=ECEF Z2 Position (M)	2 Characters *
	X3=ECEF X3 Position (M)	2 Characters *
	Y3=ECEF Y3 Position (M)	2 Characters *
	Z3=ECEF Z3 Position (M)	2 Characters *
	VX=ECEF X Velocity (M/S)	4 Characters
	VY=ECEF Y Velocity (M/S)	4 Characters
	VZ=ECEF Z Velocity (M/S)	4 Characters
	AX=ECEF X Acceleration (M/S2)	2 Characters #
	AY=ECEF Y Acceleration (M/S2)	2 Characters #
	AZ=ECEF Z Acceleration (M/S2)	2 Characters #
	TIME
	8 Characters
	TOTAL CHARACTERS/MESSAGE:	80 Characters

A database is constructed using the ADS message reports. The AC&M processing converts the position and velocity information to the appropriate coordinate frame (if necessary, speed in knots and a true north heading). Simple first and second order time projections based upon position, velocity and acceleration computations are used. The ability to smooth and average the velocity information is also possible using time weighted averages. [0118]
ECEF POSITION PROJECTION TECHNIQUE[0119]
PROJECTED X=X+(VX)(t)+(AX)(t ²)/2
PROJECTED Y=Y+(VY)(t)+(AY)(t ²)/2
PROJECTED Z=Z+(VZ)(t)+(AZ)(t ²)/2
This set of simple projection relationships is used in the collision prediction and zone incursion processing methods. [0120]
ZONE DATABASE [0121]
Zone areas may be defined in the initial map data base construction or may be added to the map database using a 2-D or 3-D data entry capability. The data entry device may be used to construct a zone using a digital map in the following manner: [0122]
Using the displayed map, the data entry device is used to enter the coordinates of a shape around the area to be designated as a zone. (An example may be a construction area closed to aircraft traffic listed in the current NOTAMS.) [0123]
The corners of the polygon are saved along with a zone type code after the last corner is entered. Circles and spheres are noted by the center point and a radius, cylinders are noted as a circle and additional height qualifying information. Other shapes are defined and entered in a similar fashion. [0124]
The zone is stored as a list of X, Y, Z coordinates. Lines connecting the points form a geometric shape corresponding to the physical zone in the selected color, line type and style in the proper layer of the base map. [0125]
Zone information may then be used by collision detection and boundary detection software contained in the AC&M system. This processing software is explained later in this specification. [0126]
FIG. 2 depicts a 3-D cylindrical static zone around a hypothetical utility pole. This [0127] zone 10 is added into the airport map 11, while the specific coordinates (center point of base 12, radius of circular base 13, and the height 14) are saved to the zone file list in a convenient coordinate frame. Below is an example of a zone which is stored in the zone database.

IDENTIFIER PARAMETER

Utility pole Type of Zone

Center of base X, Y, Z

Radius of base R

Height of the cylinder H
The 3-D [0128] digital map 11 is then updated using a series of graphic instructions to draw the zone 10 into the map with specific graphic characteristics such as line type, line color, area fill and other characteristics. A database of zone information containing zones in surface coordinates such as X & Y state plane coordinates and mean sea level, ECEF referenced X, Y, Z and others are accessible to the AC&M Processing. The database may consist of, but is not limited to the following type of zones.
OBJECT OF THE ZONE [0129]
___________________ [0130]
TRANSMISSION TOWERS [0131]
AIRPORT CONSTRUCTION AREAS [0132]
CLOSED AREAS OF AIRPORT [0133]
MOUNTAINS [0134]
TALL BUILDINGS [0135]
AREAS OFF TAXIWAY AND RUNWAY [0136]
RESTRICTED AIRSPACE [0137]
INVISIBLE BOUNDARIES BETWEEN AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLER AREAS [0138]
APPROACH ENVELOPE [0139]
DEPARTURE ENVELOPE [0140]
AREAS SURROUNDING THE AIRPORT [0141]
MOVING ZONES AROUND AIRCRAFT/VEHICLES [0142]
ZONE PROCESSING [0143]
The zone information is retrieved from a zone database. As the AC&M Processor receives current ADS reports, information on each position report is checked for zone incursion. Further processing utilizes velocity and acceleration information to determine projected position and potential collision hazards. If a current position or projected position enters a zone area or presents a collision hazard an alert is generated. [0144]
A zone is any shape which forms a 2-D or 3-D figure such as but not limited to a convex polygon (2-D or 3-D), or a circular (2-D), spherical (3-D), cylindrical (3-D) or conical shape represented as a mathematical formula or as a series of coordinate points. Zones are stored in numerous ways based upon the type of zone. The coordinate system of the map and the units of measure greatly affect the manner in which zones are constructed, stored and processed. [0145]
The invention described herein utilizes four primary types of 2-D and 3-D zones in the Airport Control and Management System. [0146]
FOUR PRIMARY ZONE TYPES [0147]
The first type zone is a static zone as shown in FIG. 3. Static zones represent static non-moving objects, such as radio towers, construction areas, or forbidden areas off limits to particular vehicles. The [0148] zone 15 shown in the FIG. 3 represents a closed area of the airport which is under construction. The zone 15 is a 3-D zone with a height of 100 Meters 16, since it is desired not to have aircraft flying low over the construction site, but high altitude passes over the zone are permitted. An example of a permitted flyover path 17 and a forbidden fly through path 18 are shown in the figure. The fly through will produce a zone incursion, while the flyover will not.
A second zone type is shown in FIG. 4 and represents a [0149] dynamic zone 19 which moves with a moving vehicle or aircraft. Dynamic zones may be sized and shaped for rough check purposes or may be used to describe the minimum safe clearance distance. The dynamic zone is capable of changing size and shape as a function of velocity and or phase of flight and characterized by vehicle or aircraft type.
The third type zone is shown in FIG. 5 and is a [0150] route zone 20. Route zones are described though the use of travel waypoints 21 and 22. The waypoints 21 and 22 define the center line of a travel path, the zone has a specified allowable travel radius X1, Y1 at Waypoint 1 21 and X2, Y2 at Waypoint 2 22 for the Determination of on or off course processing. For simplicity X1 may equal X2 and Y1 may equal Y2. On course 23 operations result in travel which is within the zone, while off course 24 operations result in travel which is outside the zone and result in an off course warning.
The fourth type zone(s) shown in FIG. 6 is a 3-D zone which is dynamic and used to sort ATC traffic by. This type zone is used to segregate information to various types of controller/operator positions, i.e. ground control, clearance delivery, Crash Fire and Rescue and others. Travel within a particular zone automatically defines which ATC position or station the traffic is managed by. For example travel within [0151] zone 1 25 is directed to ATC ground station, while travel within zone 2 26 is directed to ATC Clearance Delivery position. The ATC zone concept allows for automatic handoff from one controllers position to the other as well as providing overall database the management automation.
The construct of zones is very important to the overall operation of the described invention herein. Further examples of zone processing methods and zone definition is provided below. [0152]

EXAMPLE 1

A cylindrical zone on the airport surface constructed using the state plane coordinate system would be represented as the following: [0153]

Center point of circle CXsp value, CYsp value

Elevation (MSL) Elev = constant, or may be a range

Circle radius CR value

The detection of a zone incursion (meaning that the position is within the 2-D circle) is described below.



Convert position to State Plane
coordinates
Current or projected position	Xsp, Ysp
Subtract circle center	Xsp − CXsp = DXsp
from current position	Ysp − CYsp = DYsp
Determine distance from	DXsp²+ Dysp²= Rsp²
circle center
Test if position is in	Rsp <= CR
circle
	If true continue
	If not true exit not in zone
Test if position is	Min Elev <= Elev <= Max Elev
within altitude range
(a cylindrical zone)

If the above conditions are met, the position is in the 3-D cylindrical zone. It can be seen that the basic methods used here are applicable to other grid or coordinate systems based on linear distances. [0155]

EXAMPLE 2

A cylindrical zone on the airport surface (normal with the airport surface) constructed using the Earth Centered Earth Fixed coordinate system is stored using three axis (X, Y, Z).



Convert current position to ECEF	X, Y, Z
Center point of circle	CX value, CY value, CZ value
Circle radius	CR value
Determine distance from	(X − CX) = DX
current or projected position	(Y − CY) = DY
to center of circle	(Z − CZ) = DZ
Determine radial distance	DX²+ DY²+ DZ²= R²
to circle center point from
current position
Test position to see if it	R <= CR
is in sphere of radius R	If true continue
	If not true exit not in zone
Determine the vector between	VC = CXE + CYE + CZE
the center of the circle
and the center of mass of
the earth
Calculate its magnitude	VC²= CXE²+ CYE²+ CZE²
Determine the vector between the	V = VX + VY + VZ
center of mass of the earth and
the current or projected position
Calculate its magnitude	V²= VX²+ VY²+ VZ²
Determine the difference between	V − VC = 0
the two vectors, if result = 0
then in the 2-D zone, if the result
is <0 then position is below, if >0
then position is above the zone

To check for incursion into an ECEF cylindrical zone, the following is tested for.



Test if position is	Min VC <= V <= Max VC
within Vector range
(a cylindrical zone)
Where	Min VC represents the bottom of the cylinder
	Max VC represents the top of the cylinder

The final two tests use an approximation which greatly simplifies the processing overhead associated with zone incursion detection. The assumption assumes that over the surface area of an airport, the vector between the center of mass of the earth circular zone center and the vector from the current position to the center of the circle are coincident. That is, the angle between the two vectors is negligible. [0158]
The second assumption based on the first approximation is that, rather than perform complex coordinate reference transformations for zone shapes not parallel with the earth's surface, projections normal to the surface of the earth will be used. Zones which are not parallel with the earth's surface are handled in a manner similar to that applied to on or off course waypoint processing using rotation about a point or center line. [0159]

EXAMPLE #3

A zone which is shaped like a polygon is initially defined as a series of points. The points may be entered using a data entry device and a software program with respect to the digital map or they may be part of the base digital map. The points are then ordered in a manner which facilitates processing of polygon zone incursion. The following examples indicate how a (4 sided) polygon is stored and how an airport surface zone incursion is performed using both the state plane coordinates and Earth Centered Earth Fixed X, Y, Z coordinates.



Convert Position to SP	Xsp, Ysp,
State Plane Zone	X1sp, Y1sp; X2sp, Y2sp;
Vertices	X3sp, Y3sp; X4sp, Y4sp
Order in a clockwise
direction
Height of 3-D zone	min Elev max Elev
Determine min & max	Xspmax, Xspmin, Yspmax, Yspmin
values for X & Y
Perform rough check	Is Xspmin <= Xsp <= Xspmax
of current position	Is Yspmin <= Ysp <= Yspmax
or projected position
	If both true then continue with zone checking
	If not true exit, not in zone
Calculate the slope	(Y2sp − Y1sp)/(X2sp − X1sp)= M
of the line between
points 1 & 2
Calculate the slope of	M⁻¹= −Mnor
the line from the present
position normal to the
line between points 1 & 2
Determine the equation	Y1sp − M * X1sp = L
between points 1 & 2
Determine the equation	Ysp − Mnor * Xsp = LN
for the line normal to the
line between points 1 & 2
and position
Determine the intersection	intXsp = (LN − L)/(M−Mnor)
of both lines	intYsp = Mnor * intXsp + (Ysp − Mnor * Xsp)
Determine the offset from	Xsp − intXsp = DXsp
position to intersect	Ysp − intYsp = DYsp
point on the line between
points 1 & 2
Perform check to see which	Check the sign of DXsp
side of the line the position is on	Check the sign of Dysp
(note sign change as function of quadrant &
direction in which points are entered in)
If the point is on the proper	Meaning the signs are
side continue and check	o.k.
the next line between points
2 & 3 and perform the same
analysis
If the line is on the wrong
side of the line, then not
in the zone hence exit
If point is on the proper
side of all (4) lines of polygon
then in 2-D zone
Note: If the zone vertices are entered in a
counter clockwise direction the sign of DXsp
and DYsp are swapped.
Test if position is	Min Elev <= Elev <= Max Elev
within altitude range
(a 3-D polygon zone)

EXAMPLE #4

A further example is provided in the definition of a 3-D runway zone using ECEF X,Y,Z. A list of runway comers is constructed using the 3-D map and a data entry device and an automated software tool. The runway zone is shown in FIG. 7. [0161]
The horizontal outline the [0162] runway 27 by selecting the four comers C1,C2,C3,C4 in a clockwise direction 28, starting anywhere on the closed convex polygon formed by the runway 27
Define the thickness of the zone (height above the runway) [0163] 29
The 4 comer 3-D coordinates and min and max altitudes are obtained through the use of a program using the ALP, then conversion are performed if necessary to convert from ALP coordinates to ECEF X, Y, Z values. [0164]

C1 = X1, Y1, Z1 C2 = X2, Y2, Z2

C3 = X3, Y3, Z3 C4 = X4, Y4, Z4

MINALT = SQRT(XMIN²+ YMIN²+ ZMIN²)

MAXALT = SQRT(XMAX²+ YMAX²+ ZMAX²)

HEIGHT = MAXALT − MINALT
Define the (4) planes formed by the vectors originating at the center of mass of the earth and terminating at the respective four runway corners. Represent the 4 planes by the vector cross product as indicated below: [0165]

XP1 = C1 × C2 XP2 = C2 × C3

XP3 = C3 × C4 XP4 = C4 × C1
Store the vector cross products in the polygon zones database, where the number of stored vector cross products equals the number of sides of the convex polygon [0166]
Determine if the present position or projected position is within the zone (PP=position to be checked)[0167]
PP=PX1, PY1, PZ1
Determine the scalar Dot product between the current position and the previously calculated Cross Products [0168]

DP1 = PP * XP1 DP2 = PP * XP2

DP3 = PP * XP3 DP4 = PP * XP4
If the products are negative then PP is within the volume defined by intersection planes, if it is positive then outside the volume defined by the intersecting planes, [0169]
Note: the signs reverse if one proceeds around the zone in a counter clockwise direction during the definition process [0170]
Determine if PP is within the height confines of the zone Determine the magnitude of the PP vector, for an origin at center of mass of the earth.[0171]
PPM=SQRT[(PX 1)²+(PY 1)²+(PZ 1)²]
Compare PPM=(PP magnitude) to minimum altitude of zone and maximum altitude of zone[0172]
MINALT<=PPM<=MAXALT
If the above relationship is true then in the zone. [0173]
If false then outside of the zone [0174]
An alternate method of determining if the present position PP is within a zone which is not normal to the earth's surface is determined using a method similar to that above, except that all N sides of the zone are represented as normal cross products, the corresponding Dot products are calculated and their total products inspected for sign. Based upon the sign of the product PP is either out of or inside of the zone. [0175]
An example of actual Zone and Runway Incursion software code is contained shown below. The actual code includes interfaces to light control, clearance status, tones and other ATC functions. [0176]
Since the extension to polygons of N sides based upon the previous concepts are easily understood, the derivation has been omitted for the sake of brevity. [0177]
In summary two mathematical methods are identified for detecting zone incursions into convex polygons, one based on the equation and slope of the lines, the other is based on vector cross and dot product operators. [0178]
The concept of zones, regardless as to whether they are referenced to surface coordinates, local grid systems or ECEF coordinates, provide a powerful analytical method for use in the Airport Control and Management System. [0179]
ZONE BASED CLEARANCES [0180]
The airport control and management system manages overall taxi, departure and arrival clearances in a unique and novel manner through the use of zone processing. A departure ground taxi clearance is issued to the selected vehicle. The waypoints and travel path are drawn into the map aboard the selected vehicle. The vehicle(s) then use the presented taxi information to proceed to the final waypoint. AC&M processing uses this clearance information to mask runway zone incursions along the travel path. Since runway incursions are masked for only the selected vehicle and for zones traversed no runway incursion alert actions or warning lights are produced when following the proper course. Should the position represent movement outside of the extablished corridor, an alert is issued signifing an off course condition exist for that vehicle. Upon the vehicle exit from a particular “cleared” zone, the mask is reset for that zone. Once the last waypoint is reached the clearance is removed and the zone mask is reset. The description below details how such clearances are managed. [0181]
SURFACE DEPARTURE CLEARANCE MANAGEMENT METHOD [0182]
1. The operator or controller wishes to issue a surface departure clearance to a specific vehicle. [0183]
2. Through the use of a data entry device such as a touch screen or keyboard or mouse, issue waypoints command is selected for surface departure waypoints [0184]
3. The operator is asked to select a specific vehicle from a list of available aircraft and vehicles [0185]
4. The vehicle data window then displays a scrollable list of available vehicles contained in a database which are capable of performing operations of departure clearance [0186]
5. The operator then selects the specific vehicle using a data entry device such as a touch screen or other data entry device [0187]
6. A list is then displayed in a scrollable graphical window of available departure travel paths for the selected vehicle [0188]
7. The operator then selects from this list using a data entry device such as a touch screen or other data entry device [0189]
8. Upon selection of a particular departure path the waypoints and travel path are drawn into a 3-D ALP. The purpose of presentation is to show the controller or operator the actual path selected [0190]
9. The controller or operator is then asked to confirm the selected path. Is the selected path correct? Using a data entry device such as a touch screen or other data entry device a selection is made. [0191]
10. If the selected path was not correct, then the command is terminated and no further action is taken [0192]
11. If the selection was correct the following steps are taken automatically. [0193]
a. AC&M processing sends to the selected vehicle using a radio duplex datalink, the clearance, 4-D waypoint and travel path information [0194]
b. The selected vehicle upon receipt of the ATC command replies with an acknowledgment. The acknowledgment is sent over the full duplex radio datalink to the AC&M processing [0195]
c. Should the AC&M processing not receive the acknowledgment in a specified amount of time from the selected vehicle, a re-transmission occurs up to a maximum of N re-transmissions [0196]
d. The vehicle upon receiving the ATC command then “loads” the 4-D navigator with the 4-D waypoint information. A map display contained in the vehicle then draws into the 3-D ALP the departure travel path as shown in FIG. 8. This figure shows travel path as [0197] 30 in the digital ALP 31 while actual waypoints are shown as (14) spheres 32.
DEPARTURE CLEARANCE MANAGEMENT METHOD [0198]
1. The operator or controller wishes to issue a departure clearance to a specific aircraft [0199]
2. Through the use of a data entry device such as a touch screen or keyboard or mouse, issue waypoints command is selected for departure waypoints [0200]
3. The operator is asked to select a specific vehicle from a list of available aircraft [0201]
4. The vehicle data window then displays a scrollable list of available aircraft contained in a database which are capable of performing operations of departure clearance [0202]
5. The operator then selects the specific vehicle using a data entry device such as a touch screen or other data entry device [0203]
6. A list is then displayed in a scrollable graphical window of available departure travel paths for the selected vehicle [0204]
7. The operator then selects from this list using a data entry device such as a touch screen or other data entry device [0205]
8. Upon selection of a particular departure path the waypoints and travel path are drawn into a 3-D ALP. The purpose of presentation is to show the controller or operator the actual path selected [0206]
9. The controller or operator is then asked to confirm the selected path. Is the selected path correct? Using a data entry device such as a touch screen or other data entry device a selection is made. [0207]
10. If the selected path was not correct, then the command is terminated and no further action is taken [0208]
11. If the selection was correct the following steps are taken automatically. [0209]
a. AC&M processing sends to the selected vehicle using a radio duplex datalink, the clearance, 4-D waypoint and travel path information [0210]
b. The selected vehicle upon receipt of the ATC command replies with an acknowledgment. The acknowledgment is sent over the full duplex radio datalink to the AC&M processing [0211]
c. Should the AC&M processing not receive the acknowledgment in a specified amount of time from the selected vehicle, a re-transmission occurs up to a maximum of N re-transmissions [0212]
d. The vehicle upon receiving the ATC command then “loads” the 4-D navigator with the 4-D waypoint information. A map display contained in the vehicle then draws into the 3-D ALP the departure travel path as shown in FIG. 9. This figure shows travel path as [0213] 34 in the digital ALP 35 while actual waypoints are shown as (5) spheres 36.
12. Upon AC&M receiving the acknowledgment, the following is performed: [0214]
a. the zone mask is updated indicating that the selected vehicle has a clearance to occupy runway(s) and taxiway(s) along the travel path. This mask suppresses zone runway incursion logic for this vehicle. [0215]
b. the zone based lighting control processing then activates the appropriate set of airport lights for the issued clearance in this case Take Off Lights [0216]
13. The vehicle now has active navigation information and may start to move, sending out ADS message broadcasts over the datalink to other vehicles and the AC&M system [0217]
14. The selected vehicle ADS messages are received at the AC&M system and at other vehicles. [0218]
15. AC&M processing using information contained in the ADS message performs mirrored navigational processing, as outlined in a latter section. [0219]
16. Zone incursion checking is performed for every received ADS message using position projection techniques for zones contained in the zones database [0220]
17. Should a zone incursion be detected, the zone mask is used to determine if the incurred zone is one which the vehicle is allowed to be in. If the zone is not in the zone mask then a warning is issued. Should the zone be that of a Runway, a Runway Incursion Alert is Issued and the appropriate airport lights are activated. [0221]
18. The ADS position is used to determine when the vehicle leaves a zone. When the vehicle leaves the zone, the clearance mask is updated indicated travel though a particular zone is complete. When this occurs the following steps are initiated by the AC&M: [0222]
a. the zones mask is updated [0223]
b. airport light status is updated [0224]
If the exited zone was a Runway, operations may now occur on the exited runway [0225]
19. The vehicle continues to travel towards the final waypoint [0226]
20. At the final waypoint the navigator and the map display are purged of active waypoint information, meaning the vehicle is where it is expected to be. New waypoints may be issued at any time with a waypoints command function. [0227]
AC&M zones based clearance function as presented here provides a unique and automated method for the controlling and managing airport surface and air clearances. [0228]
COLLISION DETECTION [0229]
Collision detection is performed through the zones management process. The basic steps for collision detection and avoidance are shown below in a general form. FIG. 10 shows graphically what the following text describes. [0230]
1. Vehicle Position, Velocity and Time (PVT) information are received for all tracked vehicles. The following processing is performed for each and every ADS vehicle report [0231]
2. PVT information is converted to the appropriate coordinate system if necessary and stored in the database [0232]
3. A [0233] rough check zone 38 and 39 is established based on the current velocity for each vehicle in the database
4. Every vehicle's rough check radius is compared with every other vehicle in the database. This is done simply by subtracting the current position of vehicle V from the position of vehicle V+1 in the database to determine the separation distance between each vehicle and every other vehicle in the database. This is performed in the ECEF coordinate frame. [0234]
5. For each pair of vehicles in the database that are within the sum of the two respective rough check radii values; continue further checking since a possible collision condition exists, if not within the sum of the rough check radii do no further processing until the next ADS message is received [0235]
6. For each set of vehicles which have intersecting rough check radii project the position ahead by an increment of Time (t) using the received vehicle velocity and optionally acceleration information. Projected positions at time=T[0236] 1 are shown by two circles 40 and 41 the minimum safe clearance separation for the fuel truck R1 and aircraft R2 respectively.
7. Determine the new separation distance between all vehicles which initially required further checking. Compare this distance to the sum of minimum safe clearance distances R[0237] 1 and R2 for those vehicles at the new incremented time. The minimum safe clearance distances R1 and R2 are contained in a database and is a function of vehicle velocity and type. Should the separation distance 42 between them be less than the sum of the minimal safe clearance distances R1+R2, then generate alert warning condition. Record the collision time values for each set of vehicles checked. If no minimum safe clearance distance is violated then continue checking the next set of vehicles in a similar fashion. When all vehicles pairs are checked then return to the start of the vehicle database.
8. Increment the projection time value (T+t) seconds and [0238] repeat step 7 if separation was greater than the sum of the minimal safe separation distance R1+R2. Continue to increment the time value to a maximum preset value, until the maximum projection time is reached, then process next pair of vehicles in a similar fashion, until the last vehicle is reached at that time start the process over. If minimum safe clearance (R1+R2) was violated compare the time of intersection to the previous time of intersection. If the previous intersection time is less than the new intersection time the vehicles are moving apart, no collision warning generated. In the event that the vehicles are moving together, meaning the intersection times are getting smaller, determine if a course change is expected based upon the current waypoints issued, and if the course change will eliminate the
collision condition. If a course change is not expected or if the course change will not alleviate the collision situation then generate alert. If the projection time T is less than the maximum projection time for warning alerts, generate a warning. If the projection time T is greater than the maximum projection time for a warning alert and less than the maximum projection time for a watch alert, generate a watch alert. If the projection time T is greater than the maximum projection time for a watch alert generate no watch alert. [0239]
9. The warning condition generates a message on the ALERT display identifying which vehicles are in a collision warning state. It also elevates the layer identifier code for those vehicle(s) to an always displayed (non-maskable) warning layer in which all potentially colliding vehicles are displayed in RED. [0240]
10. The watch condition generates a message on the ALERT display identifying which vehicles are in a collision watch state. It also elevates the layer identifier code for that vehicle(s) to an Always displayed (non-maskable) watch layer in which all potentially colliding vehicles are displayed in YELLOW. [0241]
11. The process continually runs with each new ADS message report. [0242]
COLLISION PROCESSING SOFTWARE EXAMPLE [0243]
The sample code below performs the above collision processing, without the routine which checks for course changes, to reduce false alarms. [0244]
ON OR OFF COURSE PROCESSING [0245]
The AC&M processing performs mirrored navigational processing using the same coordinate references and waypoints as those aboard the vehicles. In this manner the ATC system can quickly detect off course conditions anywhere in the 3-D airport space envelope and effectively perform zone incursion processing aboard the vehicles and at the AC&M. [0246]
The AC&M processing software converts the position and velocity information to the appropriate coordinate frame (zone & map compatible) using techniques described previously. Waypoints based upon the precise 3-dimensional map are used for surface and air navigation in the airport space envelope. The capability is provided to store waypoints in a variety of coordinate systems, such as conventional Latitude, Longitude, Mean Sea Level, State Plane Coordinates, ECEF X, Y, Z and others. The navigational Waypoint and on course—off course determinations are preferred to be performed in an ECEF X, Y, Z coordinate frame, but this is not mandatory. [0247]
The following mathematical example is provided to show how waypoints and trajectories are processed in Latitude, Longitude, Mean Sea Level and in ECEF X, Y, Z. An actual GNSS flight trajectory is used for this mathematical analysis. The flight trajectory has been previously converted to an ECEF X, Y, Z format as have the waypoints using the previously described techniques. FIGS. [0248] 11,12,13,14,15 are used in conjunction with the following description.
FIG. 11 depicts the ECEF waypoint processing used in the AC&M. The ECEF coordinate [0249] system 43 is shown as X,Y,Z, the origin of the coordinate system is shown as 0,0,0. The coordinate system rotates 44 with the earth on its polar axis. The airport 45 is shown as a square patch. An enlarged side view of the airport 46 is shown with (4) waypoints 47. A further enlargement shows the Present Position 48 (PP), the Next Waypoint 49 (NWP) the Previous Waypoint (PWP) 50. The True Course Line 58 is between the Next Waypoint 49 and Previous Waypoint 50. The vector from the Present Position 48 to the Next Waypoint 49 is vector TNWP 51. The Velocity Vector 52 and the Time Projected Position is shown as a solid black box 53. The Projected Position 53 is used in zone incursion processing. The 3-D distance to the true coarse is represented by the Cross Track Vector 54 XTRK. The vector normal to the earth surface at the present position and originating at the center of mass of the earth is shown as 55. This vector is assumed to be in the same direction of the vertical axis 56. The lateral axis 57 is perpendicular to the vertical axis and perpendicular to the true course line 58 between the Next Waypoint 49 and the Previous Waypoint 50. The Navigational Display 59 shows the Present Position 48 with respect to the True Course Line 58.

The following equations describe the processing performed in the AC&M while FIGS. 12, 13, 14, and 15 represent plots of the actual trajectory information.



Variable Definition

Ω =	the number of degrees per radian	57.295779513
α =	semi major axis, equatorial radius	6378137 meters
e =	earth's eccentricity	0.0818182

TALT =	ellipsoidal altitude of trajectory position (meters)
WALT =	ellipsoidal altitude of the waypoint positions (meters)
ρ =	earth's radius of curvature at the position or waypoint
r =	2-d equatorial radius (meters)
R =	first estimate of the radius of curvature (meters)
sφ =	the ratio of ECEF Z value divided by R (meters)
RC =	radius of curvature at the present position (meters)
h =	altitude with respect to the reference ellipsoid (meters)
λ =	longitude of position in radians
φ =	latitude of position in radiams
ENU =	East, North, Up coordinate reference
XYZ =	East, North, Up vector distance (meters) to waypoint
VELENU =	East, North, Up velocity in (meters/sec)
DISTENU =	East, North, Up scalar distance to waypoint
VELEMUMAG =	East, North, Up Velocity magnitude (scalar) meters/sec
NBEAR =	True North Bearing

T=Time in seconds [0251]
p[0252] _wT=Earth's radius of curvature at the waypoint
Waypoint indexes through a list of waypoints [0253]
Waypoints are indexed as a function of position [0254]
p[0255] _T=Earth's radius of curvature at the GNSS position $Position$ ${LA}_{T} = Latitude {LO}_{T} = Longitude {TALT}_{T} = altitude$ $Waypoint$ ${WLA}_{wT} = Waypoint Lat. {WLO}_{wT} = Waypoint Lon. {WALT}_{wT} = altitude$ $Position$ $X_{T} = ECEF X Y_{T} = ECEF Y Z_{T} = ECEF Z$ $Waypoint$ $A_{T} = Waypoint ECEF X B_{T} = Waypoint ECEF Y$ $C_{T} = Waypoint ECEF Z$

Earth Radius of Curvature Determination

[0256] $\begin{matrix} ρ_{w T} := \sqrt{\frac{α^{2}}{1 - e^{2} \cdot {\sin (L A_{w T})}^{2}}} \\ AT WAYPOINT \end{matrix} \begin{matrix} ρ_{T} := \sqrt{\frac{α^{2}}{1 - e^{2} \cdot {\sin (L A_{T})}^{2}}} \\ AT GNSS POSITION \end{matrix}$

Convert Trajectory to ECEF Coordinates

X _T:=(TALT _T+ρ_T)·cos(LA _T)·cos(LO _T)
Y _T=(TALT _T÷ρ_T)·cos(LA _T)·sin(LO _T)
Z _T :=[TALT _T+ρ·(1−e²)]·sin(LA _T)

Convert Waypoints to ECEF Coordinates

A _wT:=(WALT _wT+ρ_wT)·cos(WLA _wT)·cos(WLO_wT)
B _wT:=(WALT _wT+ρ_wT)·cos(WLA _wT)·sin(WLO _wT)
C _wT :=[WALT _wT+ρ_wT·(1−e²)]·sin(WLA _wT)

Find Vector From Present Position to Next Waypoint

T=TIME OF TRAJECTORY DATA MATRIX INDEX
TIME INTO TRAJECTORY=61 SECONDS

Construct ECEF Waypoint Matrix Q

[0257] $Q := [\begin{matrix} A_{0} & B_{0} & C_{0} \\ A_{N} & B_{N} & C_{N} \\ A \\ _{2 \cdot N} & B & _{2 \cdot N} & C & _{2 \cdot N} \\ A \\ _{3 \cdot N} & B & _{3 \cdot N} & C & _{3 \cdot N} \\ A \\ _{4 \cdot N} & B & _{4 \cdot N} & C & _{4 \cdot N} \\ A \\ _{5 \cdot N} & B & _{5 \cdot N} & C & _{5 \cdot N} \\ A \\ _{6 \cdot N} & B & _{6 \cdot N} & C & _{6 \cdot N} \\ A \\ _{7 \cdot N} & B & _{7 \cdot N} & C & _{7 \cdot N} \end{matrix}]$

Waypoint Selection Criteria # 1 Time Based

Time Based Waypoint Selection Technique Determine Next Waypoint From Present Position

[0258] $G_{n} := until [[\frac{T}{N \cdot (1 + n)}] - 1, n + 1]$

Waypoint Selection Criteria # 2 Position Based Utilizes the Concept of Zones, See Zones

[0259] $Q = [\begin{matrix} 1491356.373377693 & - 4435534.380128561 & 4319696.328998308 \\ 1491105.506082756 & - 4434843.777395391 & 4320510.100123271 \\ 1491191.231021753 & - 4434078.221408217 & 4321279.195524782 \\ 1491403.123106249 & - 4433316.762941022 & 4322016.015673301 \\ 1491013.940737782 & - 4432855.368457528 & 4322641.896808126 \\ 1490386.073951513 & - 4432652.821583812 & 4323015.562834505 \\ 1489735.707050711 & - 4432541.026386314 & 4323262.840511303 \\ 1489205.896384193 & - 4432860.450400459 & 4322985.406680132 \end{matrix}]$

Determine Vector Between Previous and the Next Waypoint

Qa:=(Q _a+1,0 −Q _a,0 Q _a+1,1 −Q _a,1 Q _a+1,2 −Q _a,2)
PP:=(X _T Y _T Z _T) PRESENT POSITION
NWP:=[A _N·(1+a) B _N·(1+a) C _N·(1+a)] NEXT WAYPOINT
TNWP:=NWP−PP VECTOR DISTANCE TO THE NEXT WAYPOINT

At Flight Time T=61 Seconds, the Next Waypoint is the Following X, Y, Z Distance From the Current Position

TNWP=(−394.0104406164 424.5394341322 588.6638708804)

Determine the Magnitude of the Distance to the Waypoint

DIST:={square root}{square root over ((TNWP ^<0>)²+(TNWP ^<1>)²+(TNWP ^<1>)²)}
DIST:=825.8347966318 METERS

Next Determine if the Speed Should Remain the Same, or Change

Time Expected at Next Waypoint is 80 Seconds Into Trajectory Current Velocity is Based Upon GNSS Receiver Determination

[0260] $VX = \frac{{TNWP}^{< 0 >}}{80 - T}$
VX=−20.7373916114 M/S X ECEF VELOCITY TO REACH WAYPOINT ON TIME

Compare Current X Velocity Required X Velocity, if Less Increase in Velocity, if Greater than Required Velocity Decrease Velocity

[0261] $VY = \frac{{TNWP}^{< 1 >}}{80 - T}$
VY=22.3441807438 M/S Y ECEF VELOCITY TO REACH WAYPOINT ON TIME

Compare Current Y Velocity to Required Y Velocity, if less Increase in Velocity, if Greater than Required Velocity Decrease Velocity

[0262] $VZ := \frac{{TNWP}^{< 2 >}}{80 - T}$
VZ=30.9823089937 M/S Z ECEF VELOCITY TO REACH WAYPOINT ON TIME

Compare Current Z Velocity to Required Z Velocity, if less Increase in Velocity, if Greater than Required Velocity Decrease Velocity

VELECEF={square root}{square root over ((VX ²)−(VY ²)+(VZ ²))} VELOCITY MAGNITUDE
VELECEF=43.4649892964 M/S
VELECEF=(−20.737 22.344 30.982)

Determine the on Course off Course Navigational Data

Unit Vector Perpendicular to Plane of QA and TNWP

[0263] $NP := \frac{{Qa}^{T} \times {TNWP}^{T}}{\langle {Qa}^{T} \times {TNWP}^{T} \rangle} NP = (\begin{matrix} 0.2375540749 \\ - 0.7054483132 \\ 0.6677654819 \end{matrix})$

Unit Vector Perpendicular to Plane of QA and NP

[0264] $UN := \frac{NP \times {Qa}^{T}}{\langle NP \times {Qa}^{T} \rangle} UN = (\begin{matrix} - 0.8621137731 \\ - 0.4698689823 \\ - 0.1896918074 \end{matrix})$

Cross Track Error

XIRK:=UN·TNWP ^T
XTRK=28.5392020973

Calculate Cross Track Vector

VXTRK:=XTRK·UN
[0265] $VXTRK := XTRK \cdot UN VXTRK = (\begin{matrix} - 24.6040392 \\ - 13.4096858447 \\ - 5.4136528281 \end{matrix})$

Unit Vector From Present Position to Next Waypoint

[0266] $UTNWP := \frac{{TNWP}^{T}}{\langle {TNWP}^{T} \rangle} UTNWP = (\begin{matrix} - 0.4771056417 \\ 0.514073076 \\ 0.7128106896 \end{matrix})$

Unit Vector of Present Position

[0267] $UPP := \frac{{PP}^{T}}{\langle {PP}^{T} \rangle} UPP = (\begin{matrix} 0.2341833314 \\ - 0.6961209085 \\ 0.6786559129 \end{matrix})$

Unit Vector of Next Waypoint

[0268] $UNWP := (\frac{{NWP}^{T}}{\langle {NWP}^{T} \rangle}) UNWP = (\begin{matrix} 0.2341210312 \\ - 0.6960529621 \\ 0.6787470933 \end{matrix})$

Check Against Great Circle Technique

Great Circle Angle β:=acos(UNVP·UPP) β·Ω=0.0074290102 Degrees

Determine Range to Next Waypoint From Present Position h=0 Should be the Same as DIST When ALT is Nearly at Ellipsoid

[0269] $R3 := (| {NWP}^{T} | + | {PP}^{T} |) \cdot \frac{β}{2}$ $R3 = 825.7511698494 METERS$ $R3 - DIST = - 0.0836267824 METERS$

‘The ECEF Analysis Compares to Great Circle Analysis Very Closely’

Converting Back to LAT. LON and MSL

Determine Geodetic Parameters (LAT, LON & EL)

r:={square root}{square root over ((PP ^<0>)²+(PP ^<1>) ²)} R:={square root}{square root over ((1−e²)² ·r ²+(PP ^<2>)²)}
[0270] $r := \sqrt{{({PP}^{< 0 >})}^{2} + {({PP}^{< 1 >})}^{2}} R := \sqrt{{(1 - e^{2})}^{2} \cdot r^{2} + {({PP}^{< 2 >})}^{2}}$ $s φ := \sqrt{\frac{{({PP}^{< 2 >})}^{2}}{R^{2}}}$ $RC := \sqrt{\frac{α^{2}}{1 - e^{2} \cdot s φ^{2}}} h := \frac{R - (1 - e^{2}) \cdot RC}{1 - e^{2} + e^{2} \cdot s φ^{2}} h = 287.6967718417$ $λ := a \tan [\frac{{({PP}^{T})}_{1}}{{({PP}^{T})}_{0}}] φ := a \tan [\frac{{({PP}^{T})}_{2}}{r \cdot (1 - e^{2})}] \begin{matrix} λ \cdot Ω = - 71.40645 \\ φ \cdot Ω = 42.930575339 \end{matrix}$

Convert to ENU Coordinates

[0271] $ENU := [\begin{matrix} - \sin (λ) & \cos (λ) & 0 \\ - \sin (φ) \cdot \cos (λ) & - \sin (φ) \cdot \sin (λ) & \cos (φ) \\ \cos (φ) \cdot \cos (λ) & \cos (φ) \cdot \sin (λ) & \sin (φ) \end{matrix}]$

Find ENU Vector From Present Position to Next Waypoint

East Distance

North Distance

Up Distance

XYZ:=ENU·(TNWP ^T( TNWP ^<1>))
[0272] $XYZ := ENU \cdot ({TNWP}^{T}) XYZ = (\begin{matrix} - 238.0792858938 \\ 790.6424859464 \\ 14.3465805212 \end{matrix})$

East VEL.

North VEL.

Up VEL

VELENU:=ENU·(VELCEF^T)M/S
[0273] $VELENU := ENU \cdot ({VELECEF}^{T}) M / S VELENU = (\begin{matrix} - 12.5301751909 \\ 41.6123344504 \\ 0.7550895802 \end{matrix})$
DISTENU:={square root}{square root over ((XYZ ₀)²+(XYZ ₁)²+(XYZ ₂)²)}
DIST=825.8347966318 METERS
VELENUMAG={square root}{square root over ((VELENU ₀)²+(VELENU ₁)²+(VELENU ₂)²)}
VELENUMAG=43.4644892872 M/S

The ECEF Approach and the ENU Approach Produce the Same Results so it is Possible to use Either Coordinate Reference to Control the Necessary Speed to the Waypoint

Find True North Bearing Angle to Next Waypoint Using Tangent

[0274] $NBEAR := a \tan (\frac{{XYZ}_{0}}{{XYZ}_{1}}) \cdot Ω NBEAR = - 16.7581666051 DEGREES$
NBEAR=−16.7581666051 DEGREES

Adjust for Trigonometric Quardrants and you have the True Bearing

Should the Range to the Waypoint become larger than the previous range of the waypoint a waypoint may not have automatically indexed. This situation could occur if the vehicle did not get close enough to the waypoint to index automatically or an ADS message may have been garbled and the waypoint did not index, due to a lost ADS message. In this case the following analysis is performed: [0275]
a) temporarily increment the waypoint index [0276]
b) find the vector between the vehicles present position (PP) and the next waypoint (NWP)[0277]
Vector to the next waypoint, TNWP=NWP(X,Y,Z)−PP(X,Y,Z)
c) Determine the current vehicle velocity vector[0278]
VEL=(VX,VY,VZ)
d) Determine the Dot Product between the Velocity Vector and Vector TNWP[0279]
COSθ=TNWP dot VEL
e) If A <COS θ<B then keep current waypoint index [0280]
Where A and B are between 0 and 1 and represent an adjustable value based on the allowable vehicle velocity angular deviation from the true course [0281]
If −1<COS θ<=0 then return to previous waypoint index and generate wrong way alert the above technique can be expanded to include curved approach, using cubic splines to smooth the transitions between waypoints. A curved trajectory requires changes to the above set of equations. Using the technique of cubic splines, one can calculate three cubic equations which describe smooth (continuous first and second derivatives) curves through the three dimensional ECEF waypoints. The four dimensional capability is possible when the set of cubic equations is converted into a set of parametric equations in time. The table below depicts an ECEF waypoint matrix which is used in cubic spline determinations. [0282]
TYPICAL WAYPOINT ECEF MATRIX [0283]
The AC&M processing utilizes the combination of precise ECEF X, Y, Z navigation and waypoints. Waypoints may be stored in a data file for a particular runway approach, taxi path or departure path. Waypoints may be entered manually, through the use of a data entry device. A list of waypoints describing a flight and or taxi trajectory is then assigned to a particular vehicle. To further supplement waypoint processing expected arrival time may be added to each waypoint as well as velocity ranges for each phase of flight. In this manner, 4 dimensional airport control and management is provided utilizing a GNSS based system. Mathematical processing is used in conjunction with precise waypoints to define flight trajectories. The mathematics typically uses cylindrical shapes but is not limited to cylinders, cones may also be used, and are defined between adjacent waypoints. Typical on or off course processing is outlined below and is shown in FIG. 16. [0284]

EXAMPLE 1

Missed Waypoint, With off Course Condition

a. Construct the True Course line between the [0285] previous waypoint 61 and the next waypoint 62
b. Determine the shortest distance (cross track error [0286] 64) from the current position 63 to the line 60 between the previous waypoint 61 and next waypoint 62
c. Determine the magnitude of cross track error [0287]
d. Compare the magnitude of the cross track error to a predefined limit for total off course error shown as [0288] 65 in the figure.
e. Construct an mathematical cylindrical zone centered on the line between the previous [0289] 61 and next waypoint 62 with radius equal to the off course threshold 65.
f. If the magnitude of the [0290] cross track error 64 is greater than the off course threshold 65 then raise flag and generate alert (off course).
g. Determine the necessary velocity to reach next waypoint on schedule, as shown previously [0291]
h. Is necessary velocity within preset limits or guidelines?[0292]
i. Check actual current velocity against preset limits and necessary velocity, If above preset limits, raise flag and issue alert to slow down. If below preset limits, raise flag and issue alert to speed up [0293]
j. Automatically index to the following [0294] waypoint 66 when the position is within the index waypoint circle 67
k. Should wrong way be detected ([0295] positions 68 and 69), index ahead to the next to waypoint pair 66 and 62 and check direction of travel 71 (Velocity) against the line 72 between the waypoints 66 and 62, if the direction of travel is within a preset angular range 70 (A to B degrees) and not off course. If the check is true meaning not off course and headed towards next waypoint then index permanently to waypoint set 66 and 62, no alert generated
l. In the event that an off course condition and wrong way occur (position [0296] 69) a message is formatted which updates the layer filter for the target which is off course, an alert is generated, the waypoints are returned to the initial settings and action is taken to bring vehicle back on course possibly using a set of new waypoints
m. In the event of a velocity check which indicates that the speed up or slow down velocity is outside of an approved range, generate a warning the speed for vehicle is out of established limits, Preset speed over ground limits are adjusted for current air wind speed. [0297]
n. The controller reviews the situation displayed and if necessary invokes a navigational correction message to be sent to the Real Time Communication Handler, and then broadcast by radio to the aircraft off course or flying at the wrong speed. The controller at this time may change the expected arrival time at the next waypoint if so necessary [0298]

EXAMPLE 2

Missed Waypoint, With On Course Processing

a. Construct the True Course line between the [0299] previous waypoint 66 and the next waypoint 72
b. Determine the shortest distance (cross track error [0300] 73) from the current position 74 to the line between the previous waypoint 66 and next waypoint 72
c. Determine the magnitude of cross track error [0301]
d. Compare the magnitude of the cross track error to a predefined limit for total off course error shown as [0302] 75 in the figure.
e. Construct an mathematical cylindrical zone centered on the line between the [0303] previous waypoint 66 and next waypoint 72 with radius equal to the off course threshold 75
f. If the magnitude of the [0304] cross track error 73 is greater than the off course threshold 75 then raise flag and generate alert (off course).
g. Determine the necessary velocity to reach next waypoint on schedule, as shown previously [0305]
h. Is necessary velocity within preset limits or guidelines?[0306]
i. Check actual current velocity against preset limits and necessary velocity, If above preset limits, raise flag and issue alert to slow down. If below preset limits, raise flag and issue alert to speed up [0307]
j. Automatically index to the following [0308] waypoint 76 when the position is within the index waypoint circle 77
k. Should wrong way be detected (position [0309] 74), index ahead to the next to waypoint pair 76 and 72 and check direction of travel 78 (Velocity) against the the line 80 between the waypoints 76 and 72, if the direction of travel is within a preset angular range 79 (A to B degrees) and not off course. If the check is true meaning not off course and headed towards next waypoint then index permanently to waypoint set 76 and 72, no alert generated
l. In the event of a velocity check which indicates that the speed up or slow down velocity is outside of an approved range, generate a warning the speed for vehicle is out of established limits, Preset speed over ground limits are adjusted for current air wind speed. [0310]
m. The controller reviews the situation displayed and if necessary invokes a navigational correction message to be sent to the Real Time Communication Handler, and then broadcast by radio to the aircraft off course or flying at the wrong speed. The controller at this time may change the expected arrival time at the next waypoint if so necessary [0311]
The AC&M processing performs all on or off course processing determinations and the displays information related to on or off course or late or early arrival conditions. [0312]
ALERT DISPLAY FUNCTION [0313]
Within the AC&M system collision alerts, zone, off course and improper speed warnings are handled somewhat differently than normal position updates. When the AC&M processing recognizes a warning condition, the aircraft(s)/vehicle(s) involved are moved to a special ALP layer. The layer filter controls what graphic parameters a particular vehicle or aircraft is displayed with. The change in the layer from the default vehicle layer signifies that the target has been classified as a potential collision, zone intrusion risk, off course condition or improper speed. [0314]
AC&M CONTROL ZONES [0315]
ATC Control Zones are used to sort and manage air and surface traffic within the airport space envelope. the AC&M Control Area is divided into AC&M Control Zones. Typically the outer most airport control zone interfaces with an en route zone. Aircraft within the 3-D AC&M zone transmit their GNSS derived positions via an on board datalink. The GNSS data is received by the airport AC&M equipment. The AC&M Processing determines the ECEF AC&M Control Zone assignment based on the aircraft's current position and assigns the aircraft to the map layer associated with that Control Zone. Mathematical computations as defined previously, are used to determine when a vehicle is in a particular control zone. [0316]
As an aircraft enters the AC&M or transitions to another ATC Control Zone, a handoff is performed between the controllers passing and receiving control of that aircraft. Surface traffic is handled in the same manner. With this AC&M scenario, each controller receives all target information but suppresses those flyers that are not under his control. In this manner the controller or operator views on those vehicles or aircraft in his respective control zone. Should there be a collision condition across an ATC zone boundary the conflicting vehicles will be displayed in a non-surpressable layer. [0317]
All targets within an AC&M Control Zone would be placed in the appropriate map layer for tracking and display purposes. Layer coding for each tracked target can be used to control graphic display parameters such as line type, color, line width as well as be used as a key into the underlying database for that object. [0318]
Additional AC&M Control Zones may be defined for other surface areas of the airport, such as construction areas, areas limited to specific type of traffic, weight limited areas and others. These areas may be handled through ATC but will most or be controlled by airline or airport maintenance departments. the concept of a zone based AC&M system integrated with 3-D map information provides a valuable management and navigational capability to all vehicles and aircraft within the airport space envelope. [0319]
ENTERING WAYPOINTS [0320]
The AC&M processing defined herein allows the user to enter waypoints using the digital map as a guide. To enter a series of waypoints the controller simply uses the map which may provide plan and side views of the airport space envelope. The cursor is moved to the appropriate point and a selection is made by pressing a key. The position is then stored in a list with other waypoints entered at the same time. The user is then prompted to enter a name for the waypoint list and an optional destination. Lastly, the waypoints converted the appropriate coordinate frame and are then saved to a file or transmitted to a particular vehicle. In this manner the user may add and define waypoints. [0321]
DEFINING ZONES [0322]
The user may define zones using the digital map as a guide. To enter a series of zones the controller simply uses the map which may provide plan and side views of the airport space envelope. The cursor is moved to the appropriate point and a selection is made by pressing a key. The position is then stored in a list with other zone definition points. The controller is then prompted to enter a name for the zone (pole, tower, construction area, etc.) and type of zone (circle, sphere, box, cylinder, etc.). Lastly, the zones are converted to the appropriate coordinate frame and saved to a file or transmitted to a particular vehicle. In this manner the user may define additional zones. [0323]
The ability to quickly and accurately define zones is key to the implementation of a zones based AC&M capability. [0324]
ADS MESSAGE FORMAT CONSIDERATIONS [0325]
The definition and standardization of a ‘seamless’ aviation system datalink format(s) is critical to the implementation of a GNSS-based aviation system. [0326]
SAMPLE ADS MESSAGE FORMAT [0327]
Perhaps the most basic issue which must be resolved in the determination of the datalink format, is the selection of the coordinate system and units for the GNSS-derived position and velocity data. Compatibility with digital and paper maps, navigation system and overall mathematical processing efficiency play major roles in the selection of the coordinate reference. [0328]

Below is a list of criteria which are used in this determination:



WORLD WIDE USE	The coordinate reference system is recognized throughout the
	world. Scale does not change as a function of where you are on
	the earth.
SIMPLE NAVIGATION	The coordinate system lends itself to simple vector navigational MATHEMATICS
	mathematics.
COMPATIBLE WITH	The coordinate reference can support curved trajectory
COMPLEX 4-D CURVED	mathematics.
PATH 4-D NAVIGATION
FUNCTIONS
COMPATIBLE WITH	Is compatible with management operations at ATC and aboard MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM A/Vs.
COMPATIBLE WITH SPACE	The coordinate system is compatible with low earth orbit or
OPERATIONS	space-based operations.
NAD83 AND WGS84 REF.	The reference system is compatible with NAD 83 and WGS 84
SINGLE ORIGIN	The system has one single point origin.
LINEAR SYSTEM	The system is a linear coordinate system and does not change
	scale as a function of location.
UNITS OF DISTANCE	The coordinate system is based on units of distance rather than
	angle
NO DISCONTINUTITIES	The coordinate reference system is continous world wide.

The ECEF X, Y, Z Cartesian coordinate system satisfies all of the above criteria. Other systems may be used such as, Universal Transverse Mercator, Latitude, Longitude and Mean Sea Level and other grid systems but additional processing overhead and complexities are involved. [0330]

A representative ADS message structure is provided below:



SAMPLE AIRPORT ECEF MESSAGE CONTENT

ID#

8	Characters
VEHICLE TYPE
4	Characters
CURRENT POSITION:
ECEF X Position (M)	10	Characters
ECEF Y Position (M)	10	Characters
ECEF Z Position (M)	10	Characters
ECEF X2 Position (M)	4	Characters *
ECEF Y2 Position (M)	4	Characters *
ECEF Z2 Position (M)	4	Characters *
ECEF X3 Position (M)	4	Characters *
ECEF Y3 Position (M)	4	Characters *
ECEF Z3 Position (M)	4	Characters *
ECEF X Velocity (M/S)	5	Characters
ECEF Y Velocity (M/S)	5	Characters
ECEF Z Velocity (M/S)	5	Characters
NEXT WAYPOINT
(WHERE HEADED INFORMATION):
ECEF X	10	Characters
ECEF Y
10	Characters
ECEF Z
10	Characters
TIME
8	Characters

A bit oriented protocol, representing the same type of information, may be used to streamline operations and potential error correction processing. (The asterisks denote optional fields which may be used to determine the attitude of an aircraft.) [0332]
The individual fields of the ADS message are described below: [0333]

ID(8 Character Word, Alpha-numeric)

The ID field is used to identify the particular vehicle or aircraft. For aircraft this is typically the flight number or, in the case of GA or private aircraft, the tail number. For airport surface vehicles it is the vehicle's callsign. [0334]

Type of Vehicle (4 Character Word, Alpha-numeric)

The vehicle type is used to identify the A/V's type classification. Numerous type classifications may be defined to categorize and identify various aircraft and surface vehicles. [0335]

Current ECEF X,Y,Z Position (10 Characters by 3 Words)

The ECEF X,Y,Z position fields provide the vehicle's position at the time of the ADS transmission in ECEF X,Y,Z coordinates. The position is calculated by the GPS receiver. Based on the system design, these values may or may not be smoothed to compensate for system latencies. The message length of 10 characters provides a sign bit in the most significant digit and 9 digits of positional accuracy. The least significant digit represents 0.1 meter resolution. This provides a maximum ADS distance of +9999999.9 which translates to an altitude of about 3600 KM above the earth's surface, providing sufficient coverage to support low earth orbiting satellites and spacecraft. [0336]

Delta Positions (Relative Positions, 4 Characters by 6 Words)

Delta positions are used to represent the positional offset of two other GPS antenna locations. These locations can be used to determine the attitude of the aircraft or its orientation when it is not moving. All delta distances are calculated with respect to the current ECEF position. Straight forward ECEF vector processing may then be used to determine the attitude and orientation of the aircraft with respect to the ECEF coordinate frame. An ECEF-to-local on board coordinate system (ie. North, East, Up) conversion may be performed if necessary. Accurate cross wind information can be determined on the ground and on board the aircraft from delta position information. Delta positions may also be used as 3-D graphical handles for map display presentations. [0337]
The message length of 4 characters provides a sign bit in the most significant digit and 3 digits of delta position accuracy. The least significant digit represents 0.1 meter resolution. [0338]

ECEF X,Y,Z Velocity (5 Characters by 3 Words)

The fields represent the A/V's ECEF X,Y,Z velocity in meters per second. Tenth of a meter/second resolution is required during the ground phase of GPS based movement detection, latency compensation, zone and collision detection processing. [0339]
The message length of 5 characters provides a sign bit in the most significant digit and 4 digits of velocity accuracy. [0340]

Next Waypoint (10 Characters by 3 Words)

These fields describe where the A/V is currently headed, in terms of the ECEF X,Y,Z coordinates of the next waypoint. This provides intent information which is vital to the collision avoidance functions. [0341]

Time (Universal Coordinated Time) 8 Characters

This field identifies the Universal Coordinated Time at the time of the ADS transmission. This time is the GPS derived UTC time (in seconds) plus any latency due to processing delays (optional). The ADS message format provides a very valuable set of information that simplifies mathematical processing. Since the ECEF Cartesian coordinate frame is native to every GPS receiver, no additional GPS burden is incurred. This type of ADS broadcast message information is more than adequate for precision ground and air operations as well as for general ATC/airport control and management functions. [0342]
OVERVIEW OF CANDIDATE ADS ARCHITECTURES [0343]
Many communication technologies are available which can provide ADS capability. Many of the systems already exist in some form today, but may require modification to meet the requirements of ADS in the terminal area. In evaluating datalink candidates, it is important that future airport standards are not compromised by forcing compatibility with the past. Systems should develop independently in a manner designed to achieve the systems' maximum operational benefits. Transitional elements and issues of compatibility with current systems are better handled through the implementation of translators which do not detract from a future system's true potential. [0344]

Mode S Interrogation

The Mode S system is in use today and is compatible with today's en route radar and Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON)-based air traffic control systems. Current Mode S 1030 MHZ interrogation is performed using Mode S radars which scan at the 4.8 second rate. The scan rate represents the rotational period of the scanning antenna. When a target is interrogated by the radar pulse, the aircraft or vehicle broadcasts its GPS-based information to air traffic control at 1090 MHZ. In this manner, ADS information is received by ATC and by other interrogating sources. [0345]
Numerous problems exist with any interrogation technique which has multiple interrogators. For radar systems to provide seamless coverage, surface, parallel runway and airport surveillance radars are required. Aircraft and surface vehicles would require the use of a transponder which broadcasts a response at 1090 MHZ when interrogated at 1030 MHZ. In an environment where multiple interrogations are required, system complexities crease dramatically. Early ATCRBS, Mode A and Mode C systems were troubled with too many unsynchronized interrogation requests. This resulted in cross talk, garble and loss of transmission bandwidth. Further complicating the airport environment is the possibility of reflected signals which interrogate areas of the airport outside the view of the surveillance radar. This clogs the 1090 channel and further complicates surveillance processing. Airborne Mode S transponder operation requires that squitter messages be broadcast when in the air and turned off on the ground. A Mode S squitter is a periodic repetitive broadcast of ADS information. This, by definition, will interfere with airport interrogation broadcasts and essentially create a self jamming system. [0346]
Any airport ADS system utilizing a Mode S interrogation capability would require almost a ground up development effort encompassing the myriad of necessary surveillance systems. [0347]

Mode S Squitter (GPS Squitter)

Similarly, the Mode S squitter utilizes the Mode S frequencies. A squitter is a randomly timed broadcast which is rebroadcast periodically. The Mode S squitter broadcasts GPS information at a periodic rate at 1090 MHZ with a bit rate of 1 MBPS. Current thinking requires that the ADS system be compatible with the Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). The TCAS system currently uses a 56 bit squitter message that must be turned off in the low altitude airport environment since it will interfere with other radar processing activities performed on the ground. Turning TCAS off inside the terminal area (where most midair problems and airport surface collisions occur) defeats the system's operational benefits where they are needed most. Operationally this is unacceptable. [0348]
A modified 112 bit squitter message has been proposed by MIT Lincoln Laboratories. With this approach, the GPS data is squittered twice per second to support ground and low altitude operations. The proposed Mode S squitter operation has distinct advantages over the Mode S interrogation method. Broadcasts are generated from all aircraft and (potentially) surface vehicles. Message collisions are possible, especially when the number of users is increased. If a collision occurs, the current message is lost and one must wait for the next message to be transmitted. At a two hertz transmission rate, this is not a significant problem. Analysis performed by MIT Lincoln Laboratories indicates that an enhanced Mode S squitter has potential to support operations at major airports. [0349]
The integration of the Mode S Squitter, as currently defined, is not without risk. This implementation requires a fleet update to convert to the 112 bit fixed format. Procedural issues of the switch-over between the 56 and 112 bit operation remain problematic. Operation in metroplex areas such as New York may create operationally dangerous conditions. Airside TCAS and [0350] ASR 56 bit transponder responses would be turned off based on phase of flight to be compatible with 112 bit squitter messages used at low altitudes and on the ground. In metroplex areas, confusion is almost certain for both the pilot and air traffic controller when systems are turned off and on. Further modifications may be required to ground and vehicular equipment should these issues be a significant problem.
The 112 bit fixed squitter length message, as defined in May 1994, fails to take advantage of precise GNSS Velocity information. This is a significant limiting factor in the proposed squitter message format. The current squitter message is designed to be compatible with today's radar processing software and is not designed to fully capitalize on GNSS and ADS capabilities. [0351]

Aviation Packet Radio (AVPAC)

AVPAC radio is currently in use with services provided by ARINC and may be a viable candidate to provide ADS services. Again, a GPS-based squitter or an interrogator-initiated broadcast is utilized at aeronautical VHF frequencies. Work is underway to adapt AVPAC to support both voice and data transmissions. A Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) protocol is utilized on multiple VHF frequencies [0352]

Aircraft Communications Addressing & Reporting System

Another communication system currently in use by the aviation industry is ACARS. ACARS is a character oriented protocol and currently transmits at 2400 baud. Work is underway to increase the baud rate to support more complex message formats. [0353]

VHF/UHF Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

An interesting communication scheme currently under test and development in Sweden utilizes TDMA operation. TDMA is similar to communication technologies used by the United States military and others. In this system, each user is assigned a slot time in which to broadcast the ADS message. A single or multiple frequency system may be utilized based upon total traffic in the area. Upon entering an airport area, the user equipment listens to all slot traffic. The user equipment then selects an unused broadcast time slot. Precise GPS time is used to determine the precise slot. ADS broadcasts are then transmitted at a periodic rate. Broadcasts typically repeat at one second intervals. Should a collision be detected upon entering a new location, the system then transmits on another clear time slot. Since all time slots are continuously received and monitored, all necessary information for situational awareness and collision avoidance is available. [0354]
This system maximizes the efficiency of the broadcast link since, in a steady state environment, no transmission collisions can occur. A time guard band is required to assure that starting and ending transmissions do not overlap. The size of the guard band is a function of GPS time accuracy and propagation delay effects between various users of the system. Another feature of this system is an auto-ranging function to the received broadcasts. This is possible due to the fact that the ADS slot transmissions are defined to occur at precise time intervals. It is then possible, using a GNSS synchronized precise time source, to determine the transit time of the ADS broadcast. By multiplying the speed of light by the transit time, one may calculate the 1-dimensional range to the transmitting object. In reality, a more precise direction, distance and predicted future location is obtainable from the ADS message information itself. [0355]

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Spread SPrectrum

CDMA spread spectrum ADS broadcasts utilize a transmission format similar to that used in the GPS satellites. PRN codes are utilized to uniquely identify the sending message from other messages. The number of users able to simultaneously utilize an existing channel depends upon the PRN codes used and the resulting cross correlation function between the codes. This implementation is being utilized commercially in wireless computer systems with data rates exceeding 256 KBPS. In a frequency agile environment, this implementation may be able to provide secure ADS services. [0356]

Cellular Telephone

Cellular technology is rapidly changing to support the large potential markets of mobile offices and personal communication systems. CCITT and ISDN standards will provide both voice, video and data capability. Cellular communication may be used by surface vehicles and aircraft for full duplex data link operations. ADS broadcast message formats receivable by ATC and other users will require changes to commercially available services. Cellular telephone has the mass market advantage of cost effective large scale integration and millions of users to amortize development costs over. This particular technology holds promise, and bears watching. [0357]
As the above examples show, a number of datalinks exist or may be modified to provide ADS services. It is not the intent of this specification to rigidly define a particular datalink. [0358]
ADS OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS [0359]
To fully exploit the ADS concepts presented in this specification, a new set of operational procedures and processing techniques are necessary. The ADS concept will provide the controller and the Aircraft/Vehicle (A/V) operator with the best possible view of the airport environment. With highly accurate 3-D position and velocity information, many new operational capabilities are possible which will provide increased efficiency and safety improvements. The following sections show how precise ADS information is used in seamless airport control and management. [0360]
DEFINITION OF COMPATIBLE WAYPOINTS [0361]
Waypoints based upon the precise 3-D map and standard surface, approach and departure paths are used for surface and air navigation in the 3-D airport space envelope. Waypoints may be stored in a variety of coordinate systems, such as conventional Latitude, Longitude, Mean Sea Level; State Plane Coordinates; ECEF X, Y, Z; and others. The navigational waypoint and on/off course determinations are preferred to be performed in an ECEF X, Y, Z coordinate frame, but this is not mandatory. [0362]
Waypoints and navigation processing should be defined and designed for compatibility with air and ground operations, including precision approach capability. The same information and processing techniques should be in place on board the ANV's and at the AC&M. The AC&M performs mirrored navigational processing using the same coordinate references and waypoints as those on board the A/Vs. In this manner, the AC&M system can quickly detect off course and ‘wrong way’ conditions anywhere in the 3-D airport space envelope at the same time these conditions are detected on board the A/V's. [0363]
WAYPOINT NAVIGATION MATHEMATICS [0364]
The following mathematical example is provided to show how waypoints and trajectories are processed in the ECEF X, Y, Z coordinate reference frame. An actual DGPS flight trajectory is used for this mathematical analysis. The flight trajectory and waypoints have been previously converted to an ECEF X, Y, Z format. [0365]
FIG. 11 presented in the earilier ON Or Off Course Processing section depicts the major ECEF waypoint elements which are used throughout the following navigation mathematical processing example. [0366]
The following example utilizes an ECEF Waypoint Matrix. In this example, the next waypoint (NWP) is [0367] element 5 in the matrix and the previous waypoint (PWP) is element 4. The values for the waypoints are shown in the examples. The range to the waypoint is determined from the current position. The range is compared to the previous range for possible off course or wrong way conditions. If the range is increasing, the waypoint auto-indexing distance may have been exceeded even though the vehicle is on course. In this situation, the waypoint index is temporarily indexed and checking is performed to determine whether the velocity vector is pointing within X degrees of the next waypoint (in this example it is set to +/−90 degrees). Based upon the outcome, a wrong way signal is generated or the waypoints are indexed. The ECEF cross track vector (XTRK) is determined and projected on to the vertical axis, local lateral axis and the plane tangent with the earth's surface at the current position. $\begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} CONSTRUCT TRAJECTORY VECTOR \\ OF PRESENT POSITION (PP) \end{matrix} & \begin{matrix} INDEX TO \\ NEXT WAYPOINT \end{matrix} \\ i := 1 \\ {PP}^{< t >} := [\begin{matrix} x_{t} \\ y_{t} \\ z_{t} \end{matrix}] \\ PRESENT POSITION & WAYPOINT INDEX \\ {PP}^{< t >} := (\begin{matrix} 1490699.03159201 \\ - 4432742.69262449 \\ 4322846.19931227 \end{matrix}) & {wpin}_{i} := floor (\frac{t}{n}) \end{matrix}$ $\begin{matrix} ECEF X & ECEF Y & ECEF Z \end{matrix}$ $WP = [\begin{matrix} 1491356.37337769 & - 4435534.38012856 & 4319696.32899831 \\ 1491105.50608276 & - 4434843.77739539 & 4320510.10012327 \\ 1491191.23102175 & - 4434078.22140822 & 4321279.19552478 \\ 1491403.12310625 & - 4433316.76294102 & 4322016.0156733 \\ 1491013.94073778 & - 4432855.36845753 & 4322641.89680813 \\ 1490386.07395151 & - 4432652.82158381 & 4323015.56283451 \\ 1489735.70705071 & - 4432541.02638631 & 4323262.8405113 \\ 1489205.89638419 & - 4432860.45040046 & 4322985.40668013 \\ 1488862.17692919 & - 4433298.26186174 & 4322564.11714943 \\ 1488577.40869804 & - 4433715.22689756 & 4322248.17133335 \\ 1488250.73266894 & - 4434298.26191826 & 4321864.00370927 \end{matrix}]$
$PWP := ({WP}_{pwp, 0} {WP}_{pwp, 1} {WP}_{pwp, 2})$ ${PWP}^{T} = (\begin{matrix} 1491013.94073778 \\ - 4432855.36845753 \\ 4322641.89680813 \end{matrix})$
$NWP := ({WP}_{nwp, 0} {WP}_{nwp, 1} {WP}_{nwp, 2})$ ${NWP}^{T} = (\begin{matrix} 1490386.07395151 \\ - 4432652.82158381 \\ 4323015.56283451 \end{matrix})$
$BWP := {NWP}^{T} - {PWP}^{T}$ $BWP = (\begin{matrix} - 627.8667862699 \\ 202.5468737194 \\ 373.6660263799 \end{matrix})$

Distance Between the Waypoints

|BWP|=758.2006572307
[0368] $TNWP := {NWP}^{T} - {PP}^{< t >}$ $TNWP = (\begin{matrix} - 312.9576405 \\ 89.8710406795 \\ 169.36352224 \end{matrix})$

Distance to the Waypoint (Range)

|TNWP|=367.019470009
CHECK RANGE TO SEE IF A WAYPOINT HAS BEEN MISSED [0369]
IF VEH. N RANGE>PREVIOUS VEH. N RANGE THEN [0370]
PERFORM TEST: [0371]
INCREMENT WAYPOINT INDEX [0372]
FIND THE VECTOR LINE BETWEEN THE CURRENT POSITION AND [0373]
NEXT WAYPOINT[0374]
TNWP=NWP(X,Y,Z)−PP(X,Y,Z)
CALCULATE ECEF CURRENT POSITIONS VELOCITY VECTOR[0375]
VEL=(VX,VY,VZ)
CALCULATE DOT PRODUCT BETWEEN THE VELOCITY VECTOR AND TNWP[0376]
COS θ=TNWP(X,Y,Z) dot VEL(VX,VY,VZ)
|TNWP|=SRT[(X*X)+(Y*Y)+(Z*Z)]
|VEL|=SRT[(VX*VX)+(VY*VY)+(VZ*VZ)]
COS θ=[(X*VX)+(Y*VY)+(Z*VZ)]/(|TNWP|*|VEL|)
IF 0<COS θ<1 THEN KEEP CURRENT WAYPT INDEX, [0377]
MISSED AUTO WAYPOINT INDEX DISTANCE [0378]
IF −1<COS θ<=0 THEN GO BACK TO PREVIOUS WAYPOINT FLASH WRONG WAY [0379] $\begin{matrix} PRESENT POSITION & NEXT WAYPOINT \\ {PP}^{< t >} = (\begin{matrix} 1490699.03159201 \\ - 4432742.69262449 \\ 4322846.19931227 \end{matrix}) & {NWP}^{T} = (\begin{matrix} 1490386.07395151 \\ - 4432652.82158381 \\ 4323015.56283451 \end{matrix}) \\ \begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} UNIT VECTOR PERPENDICULAR \\ TO PLANE CONTAINING INTER - \end{matrix} \\ SECTING LINES TNWP & LINE \end{matrix} \\ BETWEEN WAYPOINTS \end{matrix} & \begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} UNIT NORMAL FROM \\ DESIRED TRACK TO THE \end{matrix} \\ PRESENT POSITION POINT \end{matrix} \\ NP := \frac{BWP \times TNWP}{\langle BWP \times TNWP \rangle} & UN := \frac{NP \times BWP}{\langle NP \times BWP \rangle} \\ NP = (\begin{matrix} 0.0568495318 \\ - 0.8345970318 \\ 0.547919634 \end{matrix}) & UN = (\begin{matrix} - 0.557688735 \\ - 0.4817501474 \\ - 0.6759438367 \end{matrix}) \end{matrix}$

Determine the Adjusted Position

The adjusted position is the point, on the line between the previous and next waypoint which is normal to the present position. [0380] ${ADJ}^{< t >} := {PP}^{< t >} + VXTRK$ ${ADJ}^{< t >} = (\begin{matrix} 1490689.686215317 \\ - 4432750.765472868 \\ 4322834.872295278 \end{matrix})$

Determine the Unit Vector in the Direction From Center of Mass of the Earth to Adjusted Position

This vector is in the local vertical direction and for all practical purposes in the vertical direction at the actual user position, since the separations are very small compared to the length of the vector. [0381] $UVADJ := \frac{{ADJ}^{< t >}}{\langle {ADJ}^{< t >} \rangle}$ $UVADJ = (\begin{matrix} 0.234070768 \\ - 0.696038475 \\ 0.6787792844 \end{matrix})$

Find the Projection of the XTRACK Vector on to the Unit Vector

This distance represents the vertical distance to true course[0382]
VERTDIST:=VXTRK·UVADJ VERTDIST−4.2570109135

Find the Lateral Axis of XTRK Information

The lateral axis represents horizontal distance to true course from the current position. A number of steps are necessary in this determination and are outlined below. [0383] $UVPER := \frac{VXTRK \times {ADJ}^{< t >}}{\langle VXTRK \times {ADJ}^{< t >} \rangle}$ $UVPER = (\begin{matrix} - 0.8245345664 \\ 0.2278021297 \\ 0.5179275418 \end{matrix})$

Find the Vector (VLAT) Which Lies in the Plane Formed by UVADJ and VXTRK Which is Perpendicular to the UVADJ Vector it is Known That VLAT DOT UVADJ=0 and UVPER DOT VLAT=0

Solve for VLAT by Using Simultaneous Equations

Equation #

1

[0384] $\begin{matrix} UVADJ \underset{0}{VL} AT \underset{0}{+ U} VADJ \underset{1}{V} LAT \underset{1}{+ U} VADJ \underset{2}{V} LA \underset{2}{T =} 0 & EQUATION #1 \\ UVPER \underset{0}{VL} AT \underset{0}{+ U} VPER \underset{1}{VL} AT \underset{1}{+ U} VPER \underset{2}{VL} A \underset{2}{T =} 0 & EQUATION #2 \end{matrix}$
Substitute and Solve in Terms of Vlat[0385] ₂ $\frac{{UVADJ}_{0}}{{UVPER}_{0}} = - 0.2838822986 \frac{{UVADJ}_{1}}{{UVPER}_{1}} = - 3.0554520095$

Define Variables for Equation Substitution

[0386] $VLATX = \frac{(\frac{- {UVADJ}_{1}}{{UVPER}_{1}}) \cdot {UVPER}_{2} + {UVADJ}_{2}}{(\frac{{UVADJ}_{1}}{{UVPER}_{1}}) \cdot {UVPER}_{0} - {UVADJ}_{0}}$ $VLATY = \frac{(\frac{- {UVADJ}_{0}}{{UVPER}_{0}}) \cdot {UVPER}_{2} + {UVADJ}_{2}}{(\frac{{UVADJ}_{0}}{{UVPER}_{0}}) \cdot {UVPER}_{1} - {UVADJ}_{1}}$

Define VLAT Vector

NOTE: VLAT(Z) TERM WILL CANCEL OUT WHEN FINDING UNIT VECTOR[0387]
VLAT:=(VLATX VLATY 1) VLAT=(0.989509706 1.3079658867 1) $UVLAT = \frac{VLAT}{\sqrt{VLATX}} {UVLAT}^{T} = (\begin{matrix} 0.5151248629 \\ 0.6809086804 \\ 0.5205859627 \end{matrix})$

Perform Check to See if UVLAT is Perpendicular to UVADJ

UVADJ·UVLAT ^T=5.5511151231·10⁻¹⁷

Close Enough to Zero

Is Perpendicular

Perform Check to See if UVLAT is Perpendicular to UVPER

UVPER·UVLAT ^T=0

It is Perpendicular

Project the Cross Track to the Lateral Axis

The sign of the lateral distance (LATDIST) and vertical distance (VERTDIST) determine whether one turns right or left or goes up or down to true course [0388]
From a simplicity standpoint, the ECEF coordinate frame provides direct GPS compatibility with minimal processing overhead. The system is based upon the ECEF world wide coordinate frame and provides for 4-D gate-to-gate navigation without local coordinate reference complications. Furthermore, it is directly compatible with zone processing functions as described in earlier sections. [0389]
The above techniques can also be expanded to include curved approaches using cubic splines to smooth the transitions between waypoints. A curved trajectory requires changes to the above set of equations. Using cubic splines, one can calculate three cubic equations which describe smooth (continuous first and second derivatives) curves through the 3-D ECEF waypoints. Additional information on the use of splines may be found in mathematical and numerical programming text books. Four dimensional capability is possible when the set of cubic equations is converted into a set of parametric equations in time. [0390]
DISPLAY GRAPHICS AND COORDINATED REFERENCES [0391]
Three dimensional display graphics, merged with GPS sensor inputs, provide exciting new tools for airport navigation, control and management. Today's airport users operate in a 4dimensional environment as precisely scheduled operations become increasingly important in an expansion-constrained aviation system. The 4-D capability of GPS integrated with precise 3-D airport maps and computer graphics, provide seamless airport safety and capacity enhancements. The merger of these technologies provides precise, real-time, 3-D situational awareness capability to both the ANV operators and the air traffic controller. [0392]
The FIG. 17 shows a missed [0393] approach 81 on runway 35 followed by a touch and go 82 on runway 24 at the Manchester Airport. The power of such a situation display 83 presentation for the air traffic controller can be instantly recognized. Upon closer inspection, it becomes increasingly clear that GPS and precise graphical maps can be a valuable asset in air and ground navigation.
For the air traffic controller, 3-D situational awareness displays, supplemented with navigation status information, are sufficient. For the pilot navigating in a 3-D world, a 3-D terrain or airport map superimposed with graphical navigational information would be extremely valuable, particularly in adverse weather conditions. [0394]
The FIG. 18 combines the elements of precise ECEF navigational information with a 3-D airport map. The key element in the construction of the map is compatibility with the navigation display, where the selection of map and navigation coordinate frames is of paramount importance. Upon inspection of computer graphical rotation and translational matrices, it becomes clear that, for processing speed and mathematical efficiency, the Cartesian coordinate system is preferred for the map database. A 3-D X,Y,Z digital map presentation provides the most efficient path to 2-D screen coordinates through the use of projection transformations. [0395]
The integration of GPS-based navigation information with digital maps suggests that new methods of navigation processing should be considered. In the past, aircraft typically relied on a signal in space for instrument-based navigation. The instrument landing system (ILS) consists of a localized directed signal of azimuth and elevation. the VOR-DME navigation system uses a signal in space which radiates from an antenna located at a particular latitude and longitude. Altitude is determined from pressure altitude. Current, 2-D radar surveillance systems are also based upon a localized coordinate reference, usually to the center of the radar antenna. Again, altitude information is from barometric pressure readings which vary with weather. The integration of localized navigation and surveillance systems and 3-D ATC and navigational display presentations require an excessive number of coordinate conversions, making the process overly difficult and inaccurate. [0396]
To minimize navigational and display overhead, a Cartesian X,Y,Z coordinate system is used for the navigation computations, map database and display presentations. Many X,Y,Z map database formats are in use today, but many are generated as a 2-D projection with altitude measured above mean sea level. Two examples of this type of system are Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) and State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS). Neither one of these systems is continuous around the world, each suffer from discontinuities and scale deformity. Furthermore, neither of these systems is directly compatible with GPS and also requires coordinate conversions. If the map, travel path waypoints, navigational processing, navigational screen graphics and airport control and management functions are in the Cartesian coordinate frame, the overall processing is greatly simplified. [0397]
In the graphical navigation display FIG. 18 , the perspective is that of a pilot from behind his [0398] current GPS position 84 . From this vantage point 85, the pilot can view his current position 84 and his planned travel path 86 . As the aircraft moves, its precise ECEF X,Y,Z velocity 87 components are used to determine how far back 88 and in what direction the observation is conducted from. This is determined by taking the current ECEF velocity 87, negating it and multiplying it by a programmable time value (step-back time). When applied to the aircraft's current position 84, this results in an observation point 89 which is always looking at the current position 84 and ahead in the direction of travel 87.
Once the [0399] observation point 89 is established in the 3-D Cartesian coordinate system, an imaginary mathematical focal plane 90 is established containing the current position 84. The focal plane 90 is orthogonal to the GPS-derived CEF velocity vector 87. The mathematical focal plane 90 represents the imaginary surface where the navigation insert 91 will be presented. The focal plane is always, by definition, orthogonal to the viewing point 85. The travel path 86 composed of ECEF X,Y,Z waypoints (92-95) is drawn into the 3-dimensional map. The point on the true travel path 86 which is perpendicular to the current position 84 represents the center 96 of the navigational insert screen 91. The orientation of the navigational insert with respect to the horizontal axis is determined by the roll of the aircraft. The roll may be determined through the use of multiple GPS antennas located at known points on the aircraft or may be determined by inertial sensors and then converted to the ECEF coordinate frame. Vector mathematics performed in the ECEF coordinate frame are then used to determine the new rotated coordinates of the navigation screen insert 91. The rotated coordinates are then translated through the use of the graphical translation matrix and drawn into the 3-D map 97.
The final step is the placement of the current position ‘cross-hair’ [0400] symbol 84 with respect to travel path 86. The aircraft's GPS position, previous and next waypoints are used to determine the ECEF cross track vector 98. The cross track vector 98 is then broken down into its local vertical 99 and local lateral 100 (horizontal) components. (Local components must be used here since the vertical and lateral vectors change as a function of location on the earth.) The cross-hair symbol 101 is then drawn on to the focal (image) plane 90 surface at the proper offset from the true course position indicated by the center of the navigation screen insert 96. Thus, this display provides precise navigation information (lateral and vertical distance to true course) with respect to true course, provides information on 3-D airport features and shows the planned 3-D travel path. The element of time may also be presented in this display format as an arrow (drawn in the direction of travel) of variable length where the length indicates speed up or slow down information.
The construction of this type of display in other than ECEF coordinates entails substantial coordinate conversion and additional processing. Again, for simplicity and compatibility with proven 3-dimensional graphic techniques, an ECEF Cartesian X,Y,Z coordinate framework is desired. [0401]
GPS NAVIGATOR DISPLAY [0402]
Various display formats are used to provide the GPS navigational information to the pilot. The area navigation display shown in FIG. 19 features auto-[0403] scaling range 102 rings 103 which provide course, 104 bearing 105 and range distance to the waypoint. The length of the course 104 and bearing lines 105 superimposed on the ring scale 103 are proportional to the distance from the waypoint. The compass orientation of the bearing line 105 provide the course to travel from the current position to the waypoint. The course line 104 indicates the compass direction of current travel. The display also provides altitude information as a auto-scaling bar chart display 106 with indicated go up or down information.
In this manner the area navigation display provides the following: [0404]
1. Range to the waypoint based on length of the line and an autoranging scale [0405]
2. Compass heading to travel to the waypoint [0406]
3. Compass heading of current travel [0407]
4. Autoranging altitude navigation bar graph display [0408]
The GPS landing display is shown in FIG. 20. This display is activated when the first GPS waypoint at the top of the glide slope is reached. The precision landing display is composed of a simple [0409] heavy cross 107 which moved about on an X Y graticuled cross hair display 108. Textual TURN LEFT/TURN RIGHT and GO UP/GO DOWN messages are presented to the pilot when the aircraft is more than a predetermined amount eg. 10.0 meters off of true course.
Another display format utilizing a 3-D map is provided in FIG. 21. This display technique provides a 3-D view of the approaching airport as viewed from the aircraft's position. The techniques described above for the cross hair navigation screen are identical to those used in the 3-D approach presentation. In the 3-D approach presentation, a [0410] conical zone 109 is constructed around the line 110 between the landing approach waypoints. The apex of the cone is at the touch down point 111 and the base of the cone is at the top of the glide slope waypoint. This 3-D object is viewed normal to the line between the current and previous waypoint as shown in FIG. 21.
The cone is sliced at the point on the line (formed by the current and previous waypoint) perpendicular to the [0411] present position 112. The resulting cross section then effectively represents the cross hair symbology implemented in the graphical GPS landing display. The current position is then displayed within the conical cross section 113 of the glide slope zone 109. A position not in the center of the display means the aircraft is not on true course. For example, a position report in the upper right of the display cross section means the aircraft is too high and too far to the right. In this case the pilot should turn left and go down. As the aircraft gets closer to the touch down point, the conical cross section scale gets smaller. Once the touchdown waypoint 114 is reached, the display reverts to a plan view of the airport similar to that shown in FIG. 8 which is then used for surface navigation. The graphical nature if this display format is useful in the air and on the ground, but requires very fast graphical and computational performance. The advantage of this system is that it minimizes many of the navigational calculations such as cross track errors, but requires moderate spatial graphical computations and fast display performance.
Waypoint Database Definition Software Example [0412]
AC&M SUBSYSTEMS [0413]

Communications Processor and Communication Flow

The processing of data communications within the airport is a key element of any GPS-based airport control and management system. A minimum of three types of messages must be addressed: [0414]
(1) the broadcast of Differential GPS correction messages to the vehicles [0415]
(2) the transmission and receipt of Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) messages (3) the transmission of control messages from the AC&M to the vehicle and vice versa. [0416]
A high level block diagram of the Airport Communications System and its interfaces to other major elements of the AC&M subsystem is provided in FIG. 22. [0417]
In this design, all ADS and A/V messages are received by the [0418] AC&M Processor 115 and are forwarded to the COMM Processor 116 for retransmission to the vehicles. The AC&M Processor is also used to compose ATC messages which are also forwarded to the vehicles through the COMM interface or passed to the local Graphics Processor 117 to control the situation display presentation. The COMM processor 116 also transmits the differential correction messages generated by the reference station 118 directly to the vehicles.

Differential GPS Overview

Real time differential correction techniques compensate for a number of error sources inherent to GPS. The idea is simple in concept and basically incorporates two or more GPS receivers, one acting as a [0419] stationary base station 118 and the other(s) acting as roving receiver(s) 119, 120. The differential base station is “anchored” at a known point on the earth's surface. The base station receives the satellite signals, determines the errors in the signals and then calculates corrections to remove the errors. The corrections are then broadcast to the roving receivers.
Real time differential processing provides accuracy of 10.0 meters or better (typically 1.0-5.0 meters for local differential corrections). The corrections broadcast by the base station are accurate over an area of about 1500 km or more. Typical positional degradation is approximately a few millimeters of position error per kilometer of base station and roving receiver separation. [0420]
Through the implementation of local differential GPS techniques, SA errors are reduced significantly while the atmospheric errors are almost completely removed. Ephemeris and clock errors are virtually removed as well. [0421]

Antenna Placement

A site survey of potential differential base station sites should be performed to determine a suitable location for the GPS antenna. The location should have a clear view of the sky and should not be located near potentially reflective surfaces (within about 300 meters). The antenna site should be away from potentially interfering radiation sources such as radio, television, radar and communications transmitters. After a suitable site is determined, a GPS survey should be conducted to determine the precise location of the GPS antenna—preferably to centimeter level accuracy. This should be performed using survey grade GPS equipment. [0422]
Survey grade GPS equipment makes use of the 19 and 21 centimeter wavelength of the L[0423] 1 and L2 GPS transmissions. Real time kinematic or post processing GPS surveys may be conducted. Real time kinematic utilizes a base station located at a precise location which broadcasts carrier phase correction and processing data to a radio receiver and processing computer. Code, carrier integral cycles and carrier phase information are used at the survey site to calculate the WGS 84 antenna position. In the post processing survey mode, subframe information, time, code, carrier, and carrier phase data are collected for a period of time. This data is later post processed using precise ephemerides which are available from a network of international GPS sites. The collected information is then post processed with post-fit precise orbital information.

Base Station Operational Elements

The precisely surveyed location of the GPS antenna is programmed into the reference station as part of its initial installation and set up procedures. Industry standard reference stations determine pseudo range and delta range based on carrier smoothed measurements for all satellites in view. Since the exact ECEF position of the antenna is known, corrections may be generated for the pseudo range and delta range measurements and precise time can be calculated. [0424]
Naturally occurring errors are, for the most part, slow changing and monotonic over the typical periods of concern. When SA is not invoked, delta range corrections provide a valid method of improving positional accuracy at the roving receivers using less frequent correction broadcasts. With the advent of SA and its random, quick changing non-monotonic characteristics, delta range corrections become somewhat meaningless and may actually degrade the system performance under some conditions. [0425]
As shown previously in FIG. 22 the DGPS correction messages are broadcast by the reference station and received by the roving receivers. The corrections are applied directly to the differential GPS receiver. The DGPS receiver calculates the pseudo range and the delta range measurements for each satellite in the usual manner. Prior to performing the navigation solution, the received pseudo range and delta range corrections are applied to the internal measurements. The receiver then calculates corrected position, velocity and time data. [0426]
Since differential GPS eliminates most GPS errors, it provides significant improvements in system reliability for life critical airport operations. Short term and long term drift of the satellite orbits, clocks and naturally occurring phenomenon are compensated for by differential GPS as are other potential GPS satellite failures. Differential GPS is mandatory in the airport environment from a reliability, accuracy and fault compensating perspective. [0427]
As with autonomous GPS receiver operation, multipath is a potential problem. The differential reference station cannot correct for multipath errors at the roving receiver(s). Antenna design and placement considerations, and receiver design characteristics remain the best solutions to date in the minimization of multipath effects. [0428]

ADS Messages

ADS messages are generated on board each vehicle and broadcast to the AC&M System. The message format is shown below:[0429]
MSG HEADER, VEHICLE ID, VEHICLE TYPE, ECEF X, ECEF Y, ECEF Z,
ECEF X VEL, ECEF Y VEL, ECEF Z VEL <CR><LF>
On board each vehicle, the GPS-based position and velocity data is converted to Earth Centered Earth Fixed (ECEF) coordinates for use in the navigation and zone processing algorithms if necessary. For simplicity, this format moused in the ADS transmission as well. Upon receipt of an ADS message, the [0430] AC&M Processor 115 forwards the message to the COMM Processor 116 then stores the data in the vehicle database. The stored ECEF position and velocity data is used to perform collision prediction, zone incursion, lighting control and navigation processing at the AC&M station.

ATC Messages

Air Traffic Control (ATC) messages are composed using the AC&M station. The ATC messages are used locally to control the AC&M graphics display [0431] 117 or present current status information to the user. ATC message are also broadcast to the vehicles 119 and 120 through the COMM Processor 116. All ATC messages utilize an explicit acknowledgment message. If an acknowledgment is not received within a defined time interval, the message is automatically retransmitted. The standard format is shown below.
$ATC, MESSAGE TYPE, VEHICLE ID, MESSAGE DATA <CR><LF>.

Error Detection and Correction

In the demonstration prototype system, Cyclical Redundancy Checking (CRC) is performed on all messages, with the exception of the [RTCM-[0432] 104] differential correction messages generated in the Base Station 118. In this scheme, ADS messages are discarded if an error is detected in the received message. This has not been a significant problem for the prototype system since the next message is received in one (1.0) second. The ATC messages directed to specific vehicles also support CRC error detection. ATC messages are “addressed” to a specific A/V and expect an explicit acknowledgment. Upon receipt of an ATC message, the ANV sends back a valid “message received” acknowledgment. The ATC message is discarded by the A/V if an error is detected. In this case, no message received acknowledgment is generated. If no “message received” acknowledgment is received by the AC&M 115 within a preset time interval, the original message is immediately retransmitted. ATC messages require a corresponding acknowledgment since they may represent critical controller instructions and airport and safety operations could be compromised if the message fails to reach its destination.
The CRC system operated effectively in the demonstration prototype system, but a more robust communication error detection and correction capability may be required for end state deployment. Forward error correction and Vterbi—Trellis techniques provide a cost effective forward error correction capability. These techniques are widely used in commercial modem technology and are available in Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC). Wide spread use of the technology makes it very cost effective for use in future airport communication systems. [0433]
AC&M PROCESSOR AND AC&M PROCESSING FLOW [0434]
A block diagram of the AC&M Processor is provided in FIG. 23. [0435]
The [0436] AC&M Processor 121 is based on a 33 MHz 386 processor with a 387 math co-processor. This processor performs the following functions:
Interfaces to communication digital datalinks [0437]
Receives ADS vehicle broadcasts [0438]
Receives acknowledgment messages from vehicles [0439]
Generates and transmits messages to vehicles [0440]
Performs collision prediction processing for each vehicle [0441]
Monitors zone and runway incursion conditions [0442]
Controls runway intersections and runway clearance lights [0443]
Maintains and controls vehicle, waypoint and zone databases [0444]
Performs navigational processing for on-off course checking [0445]
Performs map layer control and assignment [0446]
Sends vehicle reports and commands to Graphic Processor for situation display [0447]
Provides a touch screen and keyboard command interface [0448]
Representative command functions are described in the following section. [0449]

Touch Screen

The AC&M touch screen provides an efficient means of command input for interfacing to the airport management system. The touch screen is used to perform the following high level functions: [0450]
Command interface to the Graphics Processor [0451]
Command interface to the AC&M Processor [0452]
Communication interface to properly equipped vehicles and aircraft [0453]
Display of various AC&M data lists [0454]
Display of vehicle status information [0455]
The touch screen is organized into four discrete display areas—the Command List, the Message Composition and Response (MC&R) Window, the Alerts Window, and the Vehicle List. The following figure shows the touch screen layout used during the final demonstration. FIG. 34 depicts the touch screen with representative information. [0456]
The Command List, as shown on the right in the figure below, is used to provide key high level command functions. When a command is invoked, it is emphasized in the Command List and remains emphasized until the command is canceled or completed. [0457]
After command selection, the valid command options are displayed in the large MC&R window to the left. The MC&R window has two major functions—it is used to compose ATC messages and it is used to display information to the operator. During message composition, the MC&R window is used to prompt the operator and provide a series of options relating to the content and destination of the message. The MC&R window also serves as the display presentation medium for list displays such as the Vehicle Data display. [0458]
Critical watch and warning messages are presented to the operator in the Alerts window of the touch screen. The Alerts window displays messages generated as a result of a potential collision condition, zone incursion or off course determination. [0459]
The Vehicle List provides the operator with a list of the active vehicles. Vehicles may be selected from the list during the message composition activities. [0460]
Numerous commands have been implemented to demonstrate the capability of the touch screen data entry device. Representative command functions are described in the following section. [0461]

AC&M Command List

Touch Screen

The AC&M touch screen provides an efficient means of command input for interfacing to the airport management system. The touch screen is used to perform the following high level functions: [0462]
Command interface to the Graphics Processor [0463]
Command interface to the AC&M Processor [0464]
Communication interface to properly equipped vehicles and aircraft [0465]
Display of various AC&M data lists [0466]
Display of vehicle status information [0467]
The touch screen is organized into four discrete display areas—the Command List, the Message Composition and Response (MC&R) Window, the Alerts Window, and the Vehicle List. The following figure shows the touch screen layout used during the final demonstration. FIG. 34 depicts the touch screen with representative information. [0468]
The Command List, as shown on the right in the figure below, is used to provide key high level command functions. When a command is invoked, it is emphasized in the Command List and remains emphasized until the command is canceled or completed. [0469]
After command selection, the valid command options are displayed in the large MC&R window to the left. The MC&R window has two major functions—it is used to compose ATC messages and it is used to display information to the operator. During message composition, the MC&R window is used to prompt the operator and provide a series of options relating to the content and destination of the message. The MC&R window also serves as the display presentation medium for list displays such as the Vehicle Data display. [0470]
Critical watch and warning messages are presented to the operator in the Alerts window of the touch screen. The Alerts window displays messages generated as a result of a potential collision condition, zone incursion or off course determination. [0471]
The Vehicle List provides the operator with a list of the active vehicles. Vehicles may be selected from the list during the message composition activities. [0472]
Numerous commands have been implemented to demonstrate the capability of the touch screen data entry device. Representative command functions are described in the following section. [0473]

AC&M Command List

ARRIVAL WAYPOINTS [0474]
The ARRIVAL WAYPOINTS command is issued to grant a landing clearance to an approaching aircraft and provide it with a set of waypoints for the landing operation. The command is invoked by touching the ARRIVAL WAYPOINT soft function key on the AC&M touch screen. [0475]
Upon invocation, the following steps are followed: [0476]
1. The ARRIVAL WAYPOINTS soft function key is highlighted. [0477]
2. The list of valid vehicle ids is displayed in the VEHICLE LIST window. The user is prompted to select one of the vehicles. [0478]
3. Upon selection of a valid vehicle, a description of each predefined arrival waypoint path is displayed in the MESSAGE COMPOSITION AND RESPONSE (MC&R) window. The user is prompted to select one of the waypoint lists. [0479]
4. Upon selection of the waypoint list, the corresponding waypoints are drawn into the AC&M's digital map display. The user is then prompted as to whether the waypoints are correct. [0480]
5. If the user accepts the waypoints, an ATC message is composed and transmitted to the vehicle. The waypoints are automatically loaded into the AC&M's mirrored navigator. The MC&R window is cleared and a message completed indicator is displayed. [0481]
6. If the user does not accept the waypoints, the waypoints drawn into the map display are cleared, the MC&R window is cleared and no waypoints are processed. [0482]
DEPARTURE WAYPOINTS [0483]
The DEPARTURE WAYPOINTS command is issued to grant a takeoff clearance to a departing aircraft and provide it with a set of waypoints for the operation. The command is invoked by touching the DEPARTURE WAYPOINT soft function key on the AC&M touch screen. [0484]
Upon invocation, the following steps are followed: [0485]
1. The DEPARTURE WAYPOINTS soft function key is highlighted. [0486]
2. The list of valid vehicle ids is displayed in the VEHICLE LIST window. The user is prompted to select one of the vehicles. [0487]
3. Upon selection of a valid vehicle, a description of each predefined departure waypoint path is displayed in the MESSAGE COMPOSITION AND RESPONSE (MC&R) window. The user is prompted to select one of the waypoint lists. [0488]
4. Upon selection of the waypoint list, the corresponding waypoints are drawn into the AC&M's digital map display. The user is then prompted as to whether the waypoints are correct. [0489]
5. If the user accepts the waypoints, an ATC message is composed and transmitted to the vehicle. The waypoints are automatically loaded into the AC&M's mirrored navigator. The MC&R window is cleared and a message completed indicator is displayed. [0490]
6. If the user does not accept the waypoints, the waypoints drawn into the map display are cleared, the MC&R window is cleared and no waypoints are processed. [0491]
SURFACE WAYPOINTS [0492]
The SURFACE WAYPOINTS command is issued to grant a ground clearance to an aircraft or surface vehicle and provide it with a set of waypoints for the operation. The command is invoked by touching the SURFACE WAYPOINT soft function key on the AC&M touch screen. [0493]
Upon invocation, the following steps are followed: [0494]
1. The SURFACE WAYPOINTS soft function key is highlighted. [0495]
2. The list of valid vehicle ids is displayed in the VEHICLE LIST window. The user is prompted to select one of the vehicles. [0496]
3. Upon selection of a valid vehicle, a description of each predefined surface waypoint path is displayed in the MESSAGE COMPOSITION AND RESPONSE (MC&R) window. The user is prompted to select one of the waypoint lists. [0497]
4. Upon selection of the waypoint list, the corresponding waypoints are drawn into the AC&M's digital map display. The user is then prompted as to whether the waypoints are correct. [0498]
5. If the user accepts the waypoints, an ATC message is composed and transmitted to the vehicle. The waypoints are automatically loaded into the AC&M's mirrored navigator. The MC&R window is cleared and a message completed indicator is displayed. [0499]
6. If the user does not accept the waypoints, the waypoints drawn into the map display are cleared, the MC&R window is cleared and no waypoints are processed. [0500]
CLEAR PATH WAYPOINTS [0501]
The CLEAR PATH WAYPOINTS command is issued to manually end a previously granted clearance and clear any pending waypoints for a specific vehicle. The command is invoked by touching the CLEAR PATH WAYPOINTS soft function key on the AC&M touch screen. [0502]
Upon invocation, the following steps are followed: [0503]
1. The CLEAR PATH WAYPOINTS soft function key is highlighted. [0504]
2. The list of valid vehicle ids is displayed in the VEHICLE LIST window. The user is prompted to select one of the vehicles. [0505]
3. Upon selection of a valid vehicle, a clear waypoints command is issued to the vehicle, clearing its remaining waypoints. Similarly, the clearance status and waypoints at the AC&M system are cleared as well. [0506]
AIRPORT LIGHTS [0507]
The AIRPORT LIGHTS command is issued to manually change the status of a specific set of runway approach, departure or intersection lights. The command is invoked by touching the AIRPORT LIGHTS soft function key on the AC&M touch screen. [0508]
Upon invocation, the following steps are followed: [0509]
1. The AIRPORT LIGHTS soft function key is highlighted. [0510]
2. Each lighting system and its current status (ON or OFF) is displayed in the MC&R window. The user is prompted to select the desired light(s) from the window. [0511]
3. Upon selection of a set of lights, the status is toggled and the corresponding lights on the map lighting board are changed accordingly. [0512]
VEHICLE FILTER [0513]
The VEHICLE FILTER command is issued to enable or suppress the display of a particular type of vehicle by altering the status of its graphic layer. The command is invoked by touching the VEHICLE FILTER soft function key on the AC&M touch screen. [0514]
Upon invocation, the following steps are followed: [0515]
1. The VEHICLE FILTER soft function key is highlighted. [0516]
2. The current vehicle types are displayed in the MC&R window with the current filter status (ON or OFF) as shown: [0517]

LIMITED ACCESS AREA GROUND VEHICLE ON

EMERGENCY/SERVICE GROUND VEHICLE ON

ARRIVAL AIRCRAFT ON

DEPARTURE AIRCRAFT ON

ALL VEHICLES ON
3. The user has the capability to suppress and re-enable various vehicle types by selecting it from the MC&R window. [0518]
4. Upon selection, the user is prompted to accept the command. If the command is selected, the vehicle type's status is toggled and the vehicle is either suppressed from the map display or redisplayed if previously suppressed. [0519]
Vehicle types which are suppressed are not displayed on the AC&M graphics display unless they are in a collision or zone incursion condition. [0520]
5. If NO is selected, the vehicle type's status remains unchanged. [0521]
LAYER FILTER [0522]
The LAYER FILTER command is issued to manually change the status of a specific graphic layer. Layers which are masked are no longer displayed. The command is invoked by touching the LAYER FILTER soft function key on the AC&M touch screen. [0523]
Upon invocation, the following steps are followed: [0524]
1. The LAYER FILTER soft function key is highlighted. [0525]

2. The current LAYER types are displayed in the MC&R window with the current filter status (ON or OFF) as shown below:



LAYER TYPE	STATUS

RANGE RINGS	ON
RANGE RINGS, 5 MILE INCREMENTS	ON
AIRPORT LIGHTING SYSTEMS (RNWY 35)	OFF
AIRPORT LIGHTING SYSTEMS (RNWY 24)	OFF
TRACKED SURFACE VEHICLES (LIMITED ACCESS)	ON
TRACKED SURFACE VEHICLES (FULL ACCESS)	ON
TRACKED DEPARTURE AIRCRAFT	ON
TRACKED ARRIVAL AIRCRAFT	ON
ARRIVAL WAYPOINTS	OFF
DEPARTURE WAYPOINTS	OFF
SURFACE WAYPOINTS	OFF
CUSTOM WAYPOINTS DEFINITION	OFF
AIRPORT SURFACE ZONES	OFF
WEIGHT LIMITED ZONES	OFF
RESTRICTED TRAVEL AREA	OFF
AIRSPACE HAZARD ZONES	OFF
OPEN CONSTRUCTION ZONES	OFF
CLOSED CONSTRUCTIONS ZONES	OFF

3. The user has the capability to suppress and re-enable various layers by selecting it from the MC&R window. [0527]
4. Upon selection, the user is prompted to accept the command. If the command is selected, the layer's status is toggled and the layer is either suppressed from the map display or re&splayed if previously suppressed. [0528]
Vehicle types which are suppressed are not displayed on the AC&M graphics display unless they are in a collision or zone incursion condition. Special category, watch or warning layers are never suppressed. [0529]
5. If NO is selected, the layer's status remains unchanged. [0530]
VEHICLE DATA [0531]
The VEHICLE DATA command is issued to display status information for a particular vehicle. The vehicle data is displayed in the MC&R window. The command is invoked by touching the VEHICLE DATA soft function key on the AC&M touch screen. [0532]
Upon invocation, the following steps are followed: [0533]
1. The VEHICLE DATA soft function key is highlighted. [0534]
2. The list of valid vehicle ids is displayed in the VEHICLE LIST window. The user is prompted to select one of the vehicles. [0535]
3. Upon selection of a valid vehicle, data corresponding to that vehicle is displayed in the MC&R window. The data is updated automatically as the vehicle's ADS messages are received at the AC&M. The data includes the vehicle id, tag, type, minimum safe distance for collision processing, heading and speed. If the vehicle has been assigned waypoints the current waypoint, 3-D range and cross track error are also displayed. The vehicle data remains displayed until another soft function key is invoked. [0536]
DISPLAY VIEW [0537]
The DISPLAY VIEW command is issued to change the display view presented on the situation display. The command is invoked by touching the DISPLAY VIEW soft function key on the AC&M touch screen. [0538]
Upon invocation, the following steps are followed: [0539]
1. The DISPLAY VIEW soft function key is highlighted. [0540]

2. Upon invocation, the following display view options are displayed in the MC&R window:



VIEW ID	DESCRIPTION

00	PLAN VIEW 10 MILE RANGE
01	PLAN VIEW 5 MILE RANGE
02	PLAN VIEW 1 MILE RANGE
03	PLAN VIEW .5 MILE RANGE
04	RUNWAY 35
05	RUNWAY 17
06	RUNWAY 24
07	RUNWAY 06
08	GATE AREA
09	FIRE, CRASH AND RESCUE
10	TERMINAL BUILDING
11	3D VIEW RUNWAY 35
12	3D VIEW RUNWAY 17
13	3D VIEW RUNWAY 24
14	3D VIEW RUNWAY 06
15	APPROACH VIEW RUNWAY 35
16	APPROACH VIEW RUNWAY 17
17	APPROACH VIEW RUNWAY 24
18	APPROACH VIEW RUNWAY 06

3. Upon selection of the desired view, the AC&M map display is redrawn. [0542]
AIRPORT LIGHTS: The system also demonstrates the capability to control airport lights based on GPS inputs and current clearance status. [0543]
[0544] RUNWAY 35 LIGHT STATUS

RUNWAY

35 LIGHT STATUS

ACTIVITY LANDING INTERSECTION TAKEOFF

DESCRIPTION LIGHTS LIGHTS LIGHTS

NO ACTIVITY STATE

(RUNWAY 35) RED OFF RED

(RUNWAY 17) RED OFF RED

TAKE OFF CLEARANCE GIVEN - 35

(35 -TAKEOFF RED OFF RED

END)

(17 - OPPOSITE RED OFF RED

END)

AIRCRAFT ENTERS RNWY 35 ZONE

(35 - TAKEOFF RED RED GREEN

END)

(17 - OPPOSITE RED RED RED

END)

TAKE OFF COMPLETED

(35 - TAKEOFF RED OFF RED

END)

(17 - OPPOSITE RED OFF RED

END)

LANDING CLEARANCE ISSUED - 35

(35 - APPROACH GREEN RED RED

END)

(17 - OPPOSITE RED RED RED

END)

ARRIVAL AIRCRAFT EXITS RUNWAY

(RUNWAY 35) RED OFF RED

(RUNWAY 17) RED OFF RED

RUNWAY INCURSION OCCURRED

(RUNWAY 35) FLASH FLASH FLASH

RED/GREEN RED/OFF RED/GREEN

(RUNWAY 17) FLASH FLASH FLASH

RED/GREEN RED/OFF RED/GREEN

RUNWAY INCURSION ENDS

(RUNWAY 35) RED OFF RED

(RUNWAY 17) RED OFF RED
Airport lighting control techniques are provided as a demonstration mechanism and are not intended to dictate a specific lighting scheme for airports. [0545]

Situation Display

A vehicle database is maintained by the AC&M and on board ‘fully equipped’ vehicles to provide a situational awareness capability to the controller and/or vehicle operator. GPS-based situational awareness requires the integration of a datalink between the aircraft, surface vehicles and AC&M system. In the demonstration prototype system, the position and velocity information determined on board each vehicle is broadcast over an experimental VHF datalink and received by the AC&M. At the AC&M, the message is assembled into a dynamic vehicle database. As each ADS message is received, the following fields in the vehicle database are updated: [0546]
Vehicle I [0547]
Vehicle Type [0548]
Position (ECEF X,Y,Z) [0549]
Velocity (ECEF X,Y,Z) [0550]
In order to present the vehicle position data graphically, the following information is also maintained in the vehicle database: [0551]
Layer ID [0552]
Vehicle Color [0553]
Each vehicle is assigned a map layer based on vehicle type. The digital airport map features numerous object oriented layers which are used to segregate various types of graphical information. By assigning vehicles to specific map layers, spatial filtering may be performed on a layer by layer basis. Color may be assigned by layer or by individual vehicle. [0554]
Position reporting functions operating on a moving platform potentially suffer from a positional error introduced by processing time. To compensate for this factor, the precise DGPS derived ECEF velocity components are used to project the position ahead. As each ADS message is received, a latency compensation time projection factor is applied in an ECEF Velocity x Time relationship. The new, projected ECEF position is then considered the current position, is stored in the vehicle database and is used throughout the navigation and collision prediction algorithms. [0555]
Once the dynamic vehicle database is constructed, a sequential scanning of the database is performed as new ADS position reports are received. Vehicles outside of the defined range are filtered out. Vehicles within range are displayed in the 3-D airport map. In this manner, graphical situational awareness is provided at the AC&M and on board the vehicles/aircraft. [0556]

Collision Prediction Processing

As ADS messages are received, collision prediction processing is performed using the current GPS data and the information stored in the vehicle database. The following database fields are used in the collision prediction processing:



	Collision Time	Time (secs) when a collision may occur
	Collision Count	Number of potential collisions detected
	Collision Condition	Warning or watch state detected
	Collision Separation	Current collision separation
	Radius	Vehicle's minimum separation radius

A ‘rough check’ is performed to determine if there are any vehicles in the immediate vicinity of the current vehicle. The current vehicle's position is projected ahead using a defined MAXIMUM_PROJECTION_FACTOR. The vehicle database is sequentially scanned. The position of the first vehicle in the database is projected ahead in the same manner. If the projected positions intersect, further collision checking is performed. [0558]
When further collision checking is warranted, the current vehicle's position is projected ahead by incrementing time in one second intervals. At each interval, an imaginary sphere is drawn around the vehicle using a predefined radius based on the vehicle's minimum safe separation. Similarly, the position of the next vehicle in the database is projected ahead. If the two imaginary spheres intersect and the time interval of the intersection is less than or equal to the MINIMUM_WARNING_TIME factor, a collision warning condition is generated. If the two imaginary spheres intersect at a time interval greater than the MINIMUM_WARNING_TIME but less than the MINIMUM_WATCH_TIME, a collision watch condition is generated. [0559]
If a collision watch condition is generated, the vehicles in the watch condition are displayed in YELLOW on the AC&M map display. A warning message is displayed to the operator in the Alerts window of the touchscreen. If a warning condition is detected, the vehicle's symbol is displayed in RED on the graphics screen and a warning message is displayed in the Alert window. [0560]
During any collision condition, the vehicle's symbol is moved to a dedicated watch or warning map layer. These layers are reserved for critical operations and cannot be suppressed by the user. [0561]
The following collision data was generated from actual collision tests and represents two surface vehicles driving towards each other. During this test scenario, the following factors were used: [0562]

MINIMUM_WARNING_TIME 3 seconds

MINIMUM_WATCH_TIME 7 seconds

RADIUS, VEHICLE 03 7 meters

RADIUS, VEHICLE 04 7 meters
Note that a COLLISION WATCH is detected when the distance between the two vehicles is less than the sum of its radii. A COLLISION WARNING is detected when the intersection occurs within the MINIMUM_WARNING_TIME of 3 seconds or less. Also note that as soon as the vehicles pass one another and the distance between them begins to increase, no WATCH or WARNING condition is detected. [0563]
VEH=03 DIST=74.9 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS [0564]
VEH=03 DIST=64.7 PROJ TIME=2 SECONDS [0565]
VEH=03 DIST=54.5 PROJ TIME=3 SECONDS [0566]
VEH=03 DIST=44.3 PROJ TIME=4 SECONDS [0567]
VEH=03 DIST=34.2 PROJ TIME=5 SECONDS [0568]
VEH=03 DIST=24.0 PROJ TIME=6 SECONDS [0569]
VEH=03 DIST=14.0 PROJ TIME=7 SECONDS COLLISION WATCH [0570]
VEH=04 DIST=70.0 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS [0571]
VEH=04 DIST=59.7 PROJ TIME=2 SECONDS [0572]
VEH=04 DIST=49.5 PROJ TIME=3 SECONDS [0573]
VEH=04 DIST=39.2 PROJ TIME=4 SECONDS [0574]
VEH=04 DIST=29.0 PROJ TIME=5 SECONDS [0575]
VEH=04 DIST=18.8 PROJ TIME=6 SECONDS [0576]
VEH=04 DIST=8.9 PROJ TIME=7 SECONDS COLLISION WATCH [0577]
VEH=03 DIST=64.1 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS [0578]
VEH=03 DIST=53.7 PROJ TIME=2 SECONDS [0579]
VEH=03 DIST=43.4 PROJ TIME=3 SECONDS [0580]
VEH=03 DIST=33.1 PROJ TIME=4 SECONDS [0581]
VEH=03 DIST=22.8 PROJ TIME=5 SECONDS [0582]
VEH=03 DIST=12.7 PROJ TIME=6 SECONDS COLLISION WATCH [0583]
VEH=04 DIST=59.1 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS [0584]
VEH=04 DIST=48.6 PROJ TIME=2 SECONDS [0585]
VEH=04 DIST=38.1 PROJ TIME=3 SECONDS [0586]
VEH=04 DIST=27.6 PROJ TIME=4 SECONDS [0587]
VEH=04 DIST=17.1 PROJ TIME=5 SECONDS [0588]
VEH=04 DIST=7.0 PROJ TIME=6 SECONDS COLLISION WATCH [0589]
VEH=03 DIST=53.3 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS [0590]
VEH=03 DIST=42.7 PROJ TIME=2 SECONDS [0591]
VEH=03 DIST=32.3 PROJ TIME=3 SECONDS [0592]
VEH=03 DIST=21.8 PROJ TIME=4 SECONDS [0593]
VEH=03 DIST=11.4 PROJ TIME=5 SECONDS COLLISION WATCH [0594]
VEH=04 DIST=47.8 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS [0595]
VEH=04 DIST=37.1 PROJ TIME=2 SECONDS [0596]
VEH=04 DIST=26.4 PROJ TIME=3 SECONDS [0597]
VEH=04 DIST=15.8 PROJ TIME=4 SECONDS [0598]
VEH=04 DIST=5.4 PROJ TIME=5 SECONDS COLLISION WATCH [0599]
VEH=03 DIST=41.9 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS [0600]
VEH=03 DIST=31.2 PROJ TIME=2 SECONDS [0601]
VEH=03 DIST=20.5 PROJ TIME=3 SECONDS [0602]
EH=03 DIST=9.9 PROJ TIME=4 SECONDS COLLISION WATCH [0603]
VEH=04 DIST=36.6 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS [0604]
VEH=04 DIST=25.9 PROJ TIME=2 SECONDS [0605]
VEH=04 DIST=15.3 PROJ TIME=3 SECONDS [0606]
VEH=04 DIST=5.4 PROJ TIME=4 SECONDS COLLISION WATCH [0607]
VEH=03 DIST=31.9 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS [0608]
VEH=03 DIST=21.2 PROJ TIME=2 SECONDS [0609]
VEH=03 DIST=10.6 PROJ TIME=3 SECONDS COLLISION WARNING [0610]
VEH=04 DIST=26.6 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS [0611]
VEH=04 DIST=15.9 PROJ TIME=2 SECONDS [0612]
VEH=04 DIST=5.6 PROJ TIME=3 SECONDS COLLISION WARNING [0613]
VEH=03 DIST=14.4 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS [0614]
VEH=03 DIST=4.6 PROJ TIME=2 SECONDS COLLISION WARNING [0615]
VEH=04 DIST=10.6 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS COLLISION WARNING [0616]
VEH=03 DIST=5.9 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS COLLISION WARNING [0617]
VEH=04 DIST=2.9 PROJ TIME=1 SECONDS COLLISION WARNING [0618]
DIST=5.4, VEHICLE SEPARATION IS INCREASING, STOP PROCESSING . . . [0619]
ZONE INCURSION PROCESSING [0620]
A 3-D map database and ECEF mathematical processing algorithms support the concept of zones. Zones are three dimensional shapes which are used to provide spatial cueing for a number of constructs unique to DSDC's demonstration system. Zones may be defined around obstacles which may pose a hazard to navigation, such as transmission towers, tall buildings, and terrain features. Zones may also be keyed to the airport's NOTAMS, identifying areas of the airport which have restricted usage. [0621]
Zones are represented graphically on the map display and mathematically by DSDC's zone processing algorithms. Multi-sided zones are stored in a zone database as a series of points. Each zone is assigned a zone id and type. The zone type is used to determine whether a particular zone is off-limits for a specific vehicle type. [0622]
Zone information is maintained in the zone database. A zone incursion status field is also maintained for the vehicle in the vehicle database. If the vehicle is currently inside a zone, this field is used to store the zone's id. If the vehicle is not inside a zone, this field is zero ([0623] 0).
At the AC&M, zone incursion processing is performed in a manner similar to the collision processing described previously. As each vehicle report is received, it is projected ahead by incrementing time up to a MAX_ZONE_PROJECTION_FACTOR. At each interval, the vehicle's projected position is compared to each line of the zone as defined by its endpoints. If the vehicle's position is inside all of the lines comprising the zone and the current projection time is less than the MIN_ZONE_WARNING factor, a zone incursion warning is generated. If the vehicle's position is inside the zone and the current projection time is less than the MIN_ZONE_WATCH factor but greater than the MIN_ZONE_WARNING factor, a zone incursion watch is generated. As in the collision processing, a zone incursion watch or warning will result in a message displayed to the operator and a change in layer assignments for the affected vehicle. [0624]
A zone incursion condition is automatically cleared when the vehicle exits the zone. All zones are defined as 3-dimensional entities and may be exited laterally or vertically. Heights may be assigned to ‘surface’ zones individually or collectively. The concepts of 3-dimensional zones is critical to an airport environment to prevent passing aircraft from triggering ground-based zones. [0625]

Runway Incursion Processing

If a zone incursion is detected, a further check is performed to determine if the vehicle is entering or inside a runway zone. For Manchester Airport, five (5) runway zones have been defined: [0626]
RNWY[0627] _—35_ZONE
RNWY[0628] _—17_ZONE
RNWY[0629] _—24_ZONE
RNWY[0630] _—06_ZONE
RNWY_INT_ZONE “RUNWAY INTERSECTION VOLUME”[0631]
An additional field is maintained in the vehicle database to indicate whether a runway incursion state has been detected. As with the zone incursion field, the runway incursion value is set to the id of the zone (i.e., the runway) if an incursion is currently occurring and is set to zero ([0632] 0) if there is no runway incursion.

If the vehicle is entering or inside a runway zone and is not cleared for that zone, a runway incursion condition is generated at the AC&M. As in any zone incursion situation, a watch or warning message is displayed in the AC&M Alerts window and the vehicle's symbol is moved to the dedicated watch or warning map layer, changing its color to YELLOW or RED. In addition, the runway incursion results in a status change in the runway's landing, takeoff and intersection lights forcing the lights to flash on the affected (and related) runway(s). The following table describes the lighting states for runway incursions in each of the five runway zones.

RUNWAY INCURSION LIGHT STATES

	RNWY 35	RNWY 17	RNWY 24	RNWY 06
ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION	A D I	A D I	A D I	A D I

INCURSION - RNWY 35	FLASH	FLASH	NO CHANGE	NO CHANGE
INCURSION ENDS	DEFAULT	DEFAULT	NO CHANGE	NO CHANGE
INCURSION - RNWY 17	FLASH	FLASH	NO CHANGE	NO CHANGE
INCURSION ENDS	DEFAULT	DEFAULT	NO CHANGE	NO CHANGE
INCURSION - RNWY 24	NO CHANGE	NO CHANGE	FLASH	FLASH
INCURSION ENDS	NO CHANGE	NO CHANGE	DEFAULT	DEFAULT
INCURSION - RNWY 06	NO CHANGE	NO CHANGE	FLASH	FLASH
INCURSION ENDS	NO CHANGE	NO CHANGE	DEFAULT	DEFAULT
INCUR. - INTERSECTION	FLASH	FLASH	FLASH	FLASH
INCURSION ENDS	DEFAULT	DEFAULT	DEFAULT	DEFAULT

A runway incursion is automatically terminated when the incurring vehicle exits the runway. When the incursion condition is terminated, the lights on the affected runway return to their default state. As in all zone definitions, runway zones are 3-dimensional entities. Runway zones are assigned a height of approximately 100 meters above the surface of the runway in the prototype demonstration system. Therefor, a runway incursion occurs only when an uncleared vehicle enters the zone at the surface level. Demonstration prototype lighting software is provided below: [0634]

Lighting Control Software Example



/****************************************************************
LIGHTS.H
Description: lights.h contains the global constants and data structures for the airport lights.
****************************************************************/
#define LIGHT_ADDR 0x300 /* address of digital IO board */
/- light bit settings, digital I/O card -/
#define LANDING_35 0x01
#define LANDING_17 0x02
#define LANDING_24 0x04
#define LANDING_06 0x08
#define TAKEOFF_17 0x10
#define TAKEOFF_06 0x20
#define TAKEOFF_35 0x40
#define TAKEOFF_24 0x80
/----- light status states -----/
#define NO_ACTIVITY 0
#define RUNWAY_INCURSION 1

#define LANDING	2
#define TAKEOFF	3
#define SURFACE	5

/*---- ruwnay id ----*/

#define RNWY_35 35

#define RNWY_17 17

#define RNWY_24 24

#define RNWY_06 6

#define RNWY_INT 1

/****************************************************************

File Name: LIGHTS.C

Description: lights.c contains the procedures used update the airport lighs

Units:

initialize_lights,

	update_lights,
	update_clearance_lights,
	get_runway_clear,
	process_clearance

****************************************************************/

#include <stdio.h> /* standard input/output	*/
#include <graph.h> /* MSC graphics routines	*/
#include <string.h> /* MSC string routines	*/
#include <stdlib.h> /* MSC standard library	*/
#include <math.h> /* MSC math library	*/
#include “sio.h” /* serial input/output	*/
#include “lights.h” /* airport light definitions	*/
#include “veh.h” /* vehicle data	*/
#include “coord.h” /* coordinate data	*/

/*------------------- external functions -------------------------*/

void store_wps(char wp_id[12], int wpindex);

/*------------------- external variables -------------------------*/

extern VEHICLE_DATA veh[MAX_VEHS]; /* vehicle database */

extern unsigned curr_lights; /* current light settings */

/*------------------- global variables -------------------------*/

short current_clearance; /* set if any vehicle is cleared */

char veh_cleared[8]; /* vehicle cleared for landing/takeoff*/

short veh_clear_status; /* clearance status for curr vehicle */

short end_of_wps; /* end of clearance/wps */

/*----------------------------------------------------------------

UNIT: initialize_lights()

DESCRIPTION: initialize_lights sets the airport lights to their default settings - RED for landing and takeoff lights

and OFF for runway intersection (i.e., stop) lights.

----------------------------------------------------------------*/

initialize_lights()

{

	update_lights(NO_ACTIVITY, RNWY_35);
	update_lights(NO_ACTIVITY, RNWY_17);
	update_lights(NO_ACTIVITY, RNWY_24);
	update_lights(NO_ACTIVITY, RNWY_06);

}

/*----------------------------------------------------------------

UNIT: update_lights

DESCRIPTION: this routine resets the lights on the specified runway based.

----------------------------------------------------------------*/

update_lights(int activity_type, int rnwy)

{

	switch (rnwy)
	{

	case RNWY_35 : case RNWY_17 :
	switch (activity_type)
	{

case NO_ACTIVITY :

curr_lights = curr_lights & 0xAC;

break;

	}
	break;
	case RNWY_24 : case RNWY_06 :
	switch (activity_type)
	{

case NO_ACTIVITY :

curr_lights = curr_lights & 0x53;

break;

	}
	break;
	case RNWY_INT:
	switch (activity_type)
	{

case NO_ACTIVITY :

curr_lights = 0;

break;

	}
	break;

	}
	/* write new light settings to board */
	outp(LIGHT_ADDR, curr_lights);

}

/*----------------------------------------------------------------

UNIT: update_clearance_lights

DESCRIPTION: this routine updates the specified clearance lights for a landing or takeoff operation. The

landing/takeoff light for the specified runway is enabled, then the remaining landing/taxi lights for both runway ends

are disabled.

INPUTS: curr_clear - clearance issued by ATC

----------------------------------------------------------------*/

update_clearance_lights(short curr_clear)

{

	/* based on current clearance, affected runway and the current status of the runway's lights, update the lights */
	switch (curr_clear)
	{

case LANDING_35 :

if ((curr_lights & LANDING_35) == 0)

curr_lights = curr_lights + LANDING_35;

	break;
	case LANDING_17 :

if ((curr_lights & LANDING_17) == 0)

curr_lights = curr_lights + LANDING_17;

	break;
	case LANDING_24 :

if ((curr_lights & LANDING_24) == 0)

curr_lights = curr_lights + LANDING_24;

	break;
	case LANDING_06 :

if ((curr_lights & LANDING_06) == 0)

curr_lights = curr_lights + LANDING_06;

	break;
	case TAKEOFF_35 :

if ((curr_lights & TAKEOFF_35) == 0)

curr_lights = curr_lights + TAKEOFF_35;

	break;
	case TAKEOFF_17 :

if ((curr_lights & TAKEOFF_17) == 0)

curr_lights = curr_lights + TAKEOFF_17;

	break;
	case TAKEOFF_24 :

if ((curr_lights & TAKEOFF_24) == 0)

curr_lights = curr_lights + TAKEOFF_24;

	break;
	case TAKEOFF_06 :

if ((curr_lights & TAKEOFF_06) == 0)

curr_lights = curr_lights + TAKEOFF_06;

break;

	}
	/* write new light settings to board */
	outp(LIGHT_ADDR,curr_lights);

}

/*----------------------------------------------------------------

UNIT: get_runway_clear

DESCRIPTION: determines the landing or takeoff flag setting

INPUTS: int rw_id - id of runway

char * msg_type - arrival or takeoff

----------------------------------------------------------------*/

int get_runway_clear(int rw_id, char *msg_type)

{

	/- local variables -/
	int clear_stat; /* clearance status */
	/* update current clearance (clear_stat) based on the designated runway (rw_id) and type of clearance

(ARRIVAL) or (TAKEOFF) */

	switch (rw_id)
	{

case RNWY_35 :

if (strstr(msg_type, “ARR”) != NULL)

clear_stat = LANDING_35;

else

clear_stat = TAKEOFF_35;

	break;
	case RNWY_17 :

if (strstr(msg_type,“ARR”) != NULL)

clear_stat = LANDING_17;

else

clear_stat = TAKEOFF_17;

	break;
	case RNWY_24 :

if (strstr(msg_type,“ARR”) != NULL)

clear_stat = LANDING_24;

else

clear_stat = TAKEOFF_24;

	break;
	case RNWY_06 :

if (strstr(msg_type,“ARR”) != NULL)

clear_stat = LANDING_06;

else

clear_stat = TAKEOFF_06;

	break;
	default :

clear_stat = SURFACE;

	}
	return(clear_stat);

}

/*----------------------------------------------------------------

UNIT: process_clearance

DESCRIPTION: process_clearance parses the clearance or departure message issued by the controller via the touch

screen. update_clearance_lights is then called to change the specified light settings.

	The message format is : $ATC,002,veh id,waypoint id
	for arrival (landing) waypoints and

$ATC,004,veh id,waypoint id

for departure (takeoff) waypoints

INPUTS: char clearance_msg[MAX_STR]

----------------------------------------------------------------*/

process_clearance(char clearance_msg[MAX_STR])

{

	/- local variables -/
	char wp_id[12]; /* waypoint id */
	char token; / character field from ATC msg */
	int rw_id; /* id of runway cleared for operation */
	int veh_index; /* index into veh database for current veh */
	int slen; /* string length */
	int i; /* counter */
	/* parse clearance message */
	token = strtok(clearance_msg,“,”); /* $ATC */
	token = strtok(NULL,“,”); /* message type */
	token = strtok(NULL,“,”); /* vehicle id */
	strcpy(veh_cleared,token);
	token = strtok(NULL,“,”); /* waypoint id */
	/* extract waypoint information */
	slen = strlen(token) − 2;
	for (i = 0; i < slen; i++)

wp_id[i] = token[i];

	wp_id[i] = ‘\0’;
	/* get runway id from waypoint information */
	if (strstr(wp_id,“35”) != NULL)

rw_id = RNWY_35;

else

if (strstr(wp_id,“24”) != NULL)

rw_id = RNWY_24;

else

if (strstr(wp_id,“17”) != NULL)

rw_id = RNWY_17;

else

	if (strstr(wp_id,“06”) != NULL)
	rw_id = RNWY_06;

else

rw_id = 0;

	/* find vehicle in vehicle database */
	veh_index = find_veh_index(veh_cleared);
	if (veh_index != −1) /* if vehicle found in database */
	{

	/* set clearance based on message type and selected runway */
	current_clearance = current_clearance −

veh[veh_index].clear_status;

	veh[veh_index].clear_status = get_runway_clear(rw_id, wp_id);
	current_clearance = veh[veh_index].clear_status +

current_clearance;

	/* extract and store waypoint data */
	store_wps(wp_id,veh[veh_index].wpindex);
	veh[veh_index].currwp = NO_WP;
	end_of_wps = FALSE;
	/* update lights immediately for arrival aircraft */
	if (strstr(wp_id,“ARR”) != NULL)

update_clearance_lights(current_clearance);

} /* if vehicle in database */

}

Clearance Delivery

If the vehicle is entering or inside a runway zone and the vehicle has a clearance, a runway incursion is not detected. A clearance is issued by the AC&M operator using the ARRIVAL WAYPOINTS, DEPARTURE WAYPOINTS or SURFACE WAYPOINTS functions. [0636]
When a clearance is issued, a global CURRENT_CLEARANCE flag is updated. The CURRENT_CLEARANCE flag is used to maintain the current airport light settings. A separate clearance status flag is also maintained in the vehicle database for each vehicle. As the vehicle approaches a runway zone, its clearance status flag is read to determine whether a runway incursion condition should be generated. Clearances are terminated automatically when the vehicle reaches the last waypoint. Clearances may also be manually cleared by the AC&M operator through the CLEAR PATH WAYPOINTS function. When the clearances are terminated, the global CURRENT_CLEARANCE flag and individual vehicle clearance flags are updated. [0637]

ECEF Waypoint Navigation

After waypoints have been issued to a vehicle or vehicles, the AC&M performs a set of navigation functions, mirroring those performed on board the vehicle using the ADS position reports. A set of waypoints is maintained for each cleared vehicle. The vehicle's current 3-D range to the waypoint and cross track error is computed for each subsequent ADS report. A determination as to whether the vehicle is on or off course is also made. If an off course condition is detected, a warning message is displayed to the operator in the AC&M's Alerts window. [0638]
To support the AC&M's mirrored navigation processing, the following fields are maintained in the vehicle database: [0639]
Waypoint Index [0640]
Current Waypoint [0641]
Cross Track Error [0642]
3D Range to Waypoint [0643]
Wrong Way Indicator [0644]
The Waypoint Index is the ID of the waypoint list assigned to the vehicle and the Current Waypoint is the waypoint the pilot is navigating towards. [0645]
At any time after the assignment of waypoints to the vehicle, the vehicle's 3-D range to the waypoint, cross track error, current waypoint, speed and heading information may be displayed in the MC&R window using the VEHICLE DATA function. [0646]
GRAPHICS PROCESSOR AND AC&M INTERFACE [0647]
The Graphics Processor (GP) [0648] 122 interfaces to the AC&M Processor 121 via a dedicated communication link 123. The GP is currently based on a 66 mHz 486 processor with a VESA Video Local Bus. This processor performs the following functions:
Receives graphics commands from AC&M [0649]
Interprets graphics commands [0650]
Performs the graphic display functions [0651]
Provides situational awareness capability [0652]
Manages the view and content of the display presentation [0653]
Maintains local map-based waypoint, zone and map layer databases [0654]
Interface with large graphics display hardware [0655]
Two types of messages are received by the GP: [0656]
(1) vehicle position messages [0657]
(2) display commands [0658]
Upon receipt of an ADS report, the AC&M Processor converts the vehicle's ECEF X,Y,Z position to the map's coordinate system if required and determines the appropriate map layer for the vehicle based on the vehicle's type and any collision or zone incursion conditions. If the vehicle is moving, the newly formatted message is sent to the GP. Stationary vehicle's are not redisplayed in the map but remain displayed in their last reported position. The message format is shown below:[0659]
$TRK,vehicle id,map layer,map x, map y, mapz coordinates<CR><LF>
Display commands are also generated by the [0660] AC&M Processor 121 and sent to the GP 122. Numerous AC&M commands, including ARRIVAL WAYPOINTS, DEPARTURE WAYPOINTS, SURFACE WAYPOINTS, CLEAR PATH WAYPOINTS, DISPLAY VIEW, VEHICLE FILTER and LAYER FILTER affect the display presentation on the GP. An acknowledgment is returned to the AC&M Processor 121 when a display command message is received by the GP 122.
LAYER ASSIGNMENTS [0661]

The

GP

122 supports up to 256 unique layers which are used for the display and segregation of graphic information. The layer assignments are provided below.

MAP LAYER ASSIGNMENTS

LAYER #	DESCRIPTION	MODE

0-2	AIRPORT MAP RUNWAYS,	ALWAYS
	TAXIWAYS, TRAVEL PATHS
3	RANGE RINGS	ON DEMAND
4	EXPANSION	TBD
5	RANGE RINGS, 5 MILE	ON DEMAND
	INCREMENTS
6-8	EXPANSION	TBD
9	AIRPORT LIGHTING	ON DEMAND
	SYSTEMS (RNWY 35)
10	AIRPORT LIGHTING	ON DEMAND
	SYSTEMS (RNWY 24)
11	TRACKED SURFACE	ALWAYS
	VEHICLES (LIMITED
	ACCESS)
12	TRACKED SURFACE	ALWAYS
	VEHICLES (FULL ACCESS)
13	TRACKED DEPARTURE	ALWAYS
	AIRCRAFT
14	TRACKED ARRIVAL	ALWAYS
	AIRCRAFT
15-19	EXPANSION	TBD
20	ARRIVAL WAYPOINTS	ON DEMAND
21	DEPARTURE WAYPOINTS	ON DEMAND
22	SURFACE WAYPOINTS	ON DEMAND
23	CUSTOM WAYPOINTS	ON DEMAND
	DEFINITION

24	EXPANSION	TBD
25	AIRPORT SURFACE ZONES	ON DEMAND
26	WEIGHT LIMITED ZONES	ON DEMAND
27	RESTRICTED TRAVEL AREA	ON DEMAND
	(WINGSPAN, ETC.)
28	AIRSPACE HAZARD ZONES	ON DEMAND
29	OPEN CONSTRUCTION ZONES	ON DEMAND
30	CLOSED CONSTRUCTIONS	ON DEMAND
	ZONES
31-60	EXPANSION	TBD
61	WATCH LAYER (COLOR =	ALWAYS
	YELLOW)
62	WARNING LAYER (COLOR =	ALWAYS
	RED)

VEHICLES [0663]

AC&M System Functional Matrix

Many of the functions performed at the AC&M Processor are also performed on board the vehicles. Three vehicles, equipped with varying configurations of hardware and software, have been used in a number of prototype demonstrations. The matrix below lists the major functions and the vehicles on which they are performed.

VEHICLE FUNCTIONAL MATRIX

			FULL	LIMITED
			ACCESS	ACCESS
FUNCTION	AC&M	AIRCRAFT	VEHICLE	1	VEHICLE 2

Receive & process	N	Y	Y	Y
DGPS corrections
Formats and	N	Y	Y	Y
transmits ADS
posn & vel. data
Receives remote	Y	N	Y	N
ADS messages
Displays ADS	Y	N	Y	N
positions in
map display
Performs dynamic	Y	N	Y	N
collision
processing
Performs zone	Y	Y	Y	Y
incursion
processing
Performs runway	Y	N	N	N
incursion
processing
Controls airport	Y	N	N	N
lights
Formats ATC	Y	N	N	N
commands
Receives ATC	N	Y	Y	Y
commands
Performs waypoint	Y	Y	Y	N
navigation
Displays current	N	Y	Y	N
position in moving
map display

Hardware block diagrams for each of the three prototype vehicle types are provided in the figures which follow, starting with the Aircraft System FIG. 24. [0665]
Differential GPS data is provided by a GPS [0666] GOLD DGPS receiver 124 and a differential data link 125. GPS position, velocity, and time information is supplied to the dual 486 based processing unit. The first 486 processor, or Navigation (NAV) Processor 126, receives GPS Receiver 124 information and performs the following functions:
Coordinate conversions from Lat/Lon/MSL to ECEF X, Y, Z [0667]
Position projections [0668]
Zone and runway incursion checking [0669]
Map layer control [0670]
General ECEF waypoint navigation and on/off course processing [0671]
ECEF-based precision landing navigation [0672]
Access to waypoint and zone databases [0673]
Transmission of graphic instructions to second 486 [0674] processor 127
Broadcast of position and velocity data over [0675] ADS datalink 128
Control of communication digital datalinks [0676]
Support for monochrome [0677] flat panel display 129
The second 486 processor, the Aircraft Graphics Processor (AGP) [0678] 127, receives graphics instructions from the NAV Processor 126 and performs the following functions:
Graphics command translations and interpretations [0679]
Graphic display functions [0680]
Display presentation view and content management [0681]
Support for monochrome [0682] flat panel display 130
The functions supported in the aircraft are actually a slightly modified version of those performed by the AC&M Subsystem. The use of common hardware and operational software elements simplified the prototype demonstration development efforts. [0683]
The full access surface vehicle (Vehicle #[0684] 1) high level block diagram is provided in FIG. 25.
Again, differential GPS data is provided by a [0685] DGPS receiver 131 and a differential data link 132. GPS position, velocity, and time information are supplied to the dual 486 based processing unit. The first 486 processor, the Navigation Processor (NAV) 133, receives GPS information and performs the following functions:
Coordinate conversions from Lat/Lon/MSL to ECEF X, Y, Z [0686]
Position projections [0687]
Collision prediction processing [0688]
Zone and runway incursion checking [0689]
Layer control [0690]
General ECEF waypoint navigation (optional) [0691]
Access to vehicle, waypoint and zone databases [0692]
Transmission of graphic instructions to second 486 [0693] processor 134
Broadcast of position and velocity data over [0694] ADS datalink 135
Receipt of remote ADS messages from other vehicles [0695]
Control of communication digital datalinks [0696]
Support for flat panel LCD display [0697]
The second 486 processor, the Vehicle Graphics Processor (VGP) [0698] 134 receives graphics instructions from the NAV Processor 133 and performs the following functions:
Graphics command translations and interpretations [0699]
Graphic display functions [0700]
Situational awareness capability [0701]
Display presentation view and content management [0702]
Support for flat [0703] panel LCD display 136
The functions supported in the full access surface vehicle are identical to those performed in the aircraft with a couple of additions. The full access vehicle receives remote ADS messages from other vehicles operating within the airport space envelope. This information is used to provide a situational awareness capability on board the vehicle. Full collision detection processing is also implemented. [0704]
The limited access surface vehicle (Vehicle #[0705] 2) is equipped with developed hardware and software as shown in FIG. 26.
Since no graphic display is provided on [0706] Vehicle # 2, a single 386-based processor 137 is utilized. Again, Differential GPS data is provided by an on board DGPS receiver 138 and a differential data link 139. GPS position, velocity, and time information is supplied to the 386 based processing unit 137 which performs the following functions:
Coordinate conversions from Lat/Lon/MSL to ECEF X, Y, Z [0707]
Position projections [0708]
Zone and runway incursion checking [0709]
Access to zone database [0710]
Sounds audible warning when zone incursion is detected [0711] 140
Broadcast of position and velocity data over [0712] ADS datalink 141
The functions supported in [0713] Vehicle # 2 are actually a subset of those supported in the aircraft and Vehicle # 1.

COMMUNICATIONS

Each vehicle is equipped with a VHF/UHF radio capable of full duplex communications. The radio interfaces to an integrated modem/GPS interface card. The radio modem is used to receive differential corrections, ADS messages, and ATC command messages forwarded by the COMM Processor. Local GPS messages are received by the vehicle's Navigation (NAV) processor. The GPS position and velocity data is converted to the ECEF coordinate frame, reformatted and transmitted to the AC&M Processor over the same radio. [0714]

Navigation Processor and Navigation

Navigation functions are performed on board the vehicle when waypoints are received from the AC&M Processor via the VHF datalink. Two navigation screens are provided, a cross hairs display for airborne applications and a map-based display for ground operations. [0715]
Upon receipt of the waypoint message from the AC&M Processor, the waypoint id is extracted and used to identify the predefined waypoint path. The waypoints are automatically loaded into the vehicle's ECEF navigation system and drawn into the vehicle's map display. FIG. 27 shows the airborne navigation display produced with the previously listed software routines. [0716]
The navigator display format is unique since it provides conventional course, bearing and range information and actual position with respect to the true course. The display portion on the right side of the screen is driven by NEU surface parameters while the display at the left is driven directly by ECEF X, Y, Z parameters. This display format may be used for all phases of flight. [0717]
The algorithms for 3-D range to the waypoint, transitioning to the next waypoint, cross track error, on/off course and wrong way determination are identical to those performed at the AC&M Processor. [0718]
For ground taxi operations, map-based waypoint navigation was found to be preferable. FIG. 8 shows a waypoint path from the Crash, Fire and Rescue (CFR) Station to the East Terminal Ramp drawn in the on board digital map display. [0719]
FIG. 9 depicts the predefined waypoint path for a departure on [0720] Runway 35.

Zones Processing

All surface vehicles are capable of performing static zone incursion processing. The zone processing algorithms are identical to those implemented at the AC&M system with the addition of an audible tone generated when an incursion occurs. [0721]

Collision Detection Processing

The fully equipped vehicle (FEV) is capable of performing collision prediction processing based on the vehicle's current position (and velocity) and the remote vehicles' ADS messages. [0722]
As the ADS messages are received, they are parsed and stored in the local vehicle database. Collision processing is performed each second, upon receipt of the FEVs GPS position and velocity data. After each GPS update, projections are performed on the FEV's current position and compared to the projected positions for each vehicle stored in the local database. In the same manner as described for the AC&M Processor, potential collision watch and warning conditions are detected between the FEV and other vehicles. However, collisions between two remote vehicles are not detected. Collisions tests are only performed with respect to the FEV itself and those in its vicinity. [0723]

Graphic Processor and Moving Map Display

Both the FEV and the aircraft are capable of displaying their current position with respect to an on board moving map display. As the vehicle's position approaches the edge of the map display, the map is automatically panned and redrawn with the vehicle centered in the display. When the vehicle is on the airport surface, the map is drawn with a north orientation at a 0.25 mile plan view perspective. When the vehicle is more than one mile from the center of the map, the map is automatically redrawn at a ten (10) mile scale. [0724]

Situational Awareness

The FEV is capable of displaying the positions of remote vehicle positions in the on board moving map display. As ADS messages are received from the COMM Processor, the remote vehicles' positions are checked to see if they would appear on the current display view. If the positions are outside of the current view, they are discarded. Positions within the current view are drawn into the map display. [0725]

Layer—Color Control

As at the AC&M processor, the FEV's situational awareness display uses color cues to indicate vehicles in a collision or zone incursion condition. As ADS and GPS messages are received and processed by the on board NAV Processor, graphics messages are formatted and sent to the local Graphics Processor (GP). These graphics messages are identical to those created at the AC&M Processor and include the vehicle id, layer id and map x,y,z position. [0726]
Coordinate Conversions Software Example [0727]
OVER COMING ERROR SOURCES [0728]

Map Temporal Differential Correction

Map temporal differential corrections are a simple and effective means of reducing error sources in GPS operation for short periods of time when Selective Availability is not active. FIG. 31 depicts the map temporal correction elements. [0729]
Map temporal corrections utilize at least one precisely surveyed location in the local area. The surveyed location may be determined from a monument marker or may be determined using a highly accurate digital or paper map. A GPS receiver and (optionally) a processing computer are co-located at the known location with the GPS antenna carefully positioned at the survey point. The receiver/computer remains at the known location for a period of time and, when enough data has been collected, determines pseudo range correction and pseudo range rate factors. These correction factors may then be applied to the differential GPS receiver to determine a corrected position. These factors are used in subsequent position determinations until another map temporal correction is applied. [0730]
Map temporal corrections are the simplest form of closed loop differential correction. As the name implies, temporal corrections degrade with time as the receiver moves within the local area. SA significantly reduces the benefits of a temporal differential correction approach. When SA is not active, the short term (30 minute) accuracy of this technique is very good (a meter or two), since all error sources are reduced. One additional limiting factor is that the same satellites must be used during roving operations as those used at the surveyed location. This may be accomplished through software control to ensure a ‘selected’ set of satellites are used for a given GPS session. [0731]

Regional Differential Corrections and Differential Overview

Real time differential correction techniques compensate for a number of error sources inherent to GPS. The idea is simple in concept and basically incorporates two or more GPS receivers, one acting as a stationary base station and the other(s) acting as roving receiver(s). The differential base station is “anchored” at a known point on the earth's surface. The base station receives the satellite signals, determines the errors in the signals and then calculates corrections to remove the errors. The corrections are then broadcast to the roving receivers. [0732]
Real time differential processing provides accuracies of 10.0 meters or better (typically 1.0-5.0 meters for local differential corrections). The corrections broadcast by the base station are accurate over an area of about 1500 km or more. Typical positional degradation is approximately a few millimeters of position error per kilometer of base station and roving receiver separation. FIG. 32 shows the basic elements for real time differential GPS (DGPS) operations. [0733]
Through the implementation of local differential GPS techniques, SA errors are reduced significantly while the atmospheric errors are almost completely removed. Ephemeris and clock errors are virtually removed as well. [0734]

ERROR SOURCES CORRECTED OR REDUCED BY DGPS

USER RANGE ERRORS (URE) 1 SIGMA MAGNITUDES

	WITHOUT DGPS	WITH DGPS

SATELLITE CLOCK & NAV.	2.7	0
EPHEMERIDES & PREDICTION	2.7	0
ATMOSPHERIC IONOSPHERIC	9.0	0
TROPOSPHERIC	2.0	.15*
SELECTIVE AVAILABILITY	30.0#	0
TOTAL RSS	31.6	.15

# To counteract the effects of SA, differential corrections must be generated, transmitted and utilized in the GPS receiver at a rate sufficient to compensate for the rate of change of SA. [0736]
Differential GPS can introduce an additional error, if not employed properly. The age of the differential correction must be monitored at the GPS receiver. As the differential correction ages, the error in the propagated value increases as well. This is particularly true for ‘virulent’ strains of SA where the errors introduced slew quickly over very short time intervals. [0737]

Operational Elements

The precisely surveyed location of the GPS antenna is programmed into the reference station as part of its initial installation and set up procedures. Industry standard reference stations determine pseudo range and delta range based on carrier smoothed measurements for all satellites in view. Since the exact ECEF position of the antenna is known, corrections may be generated for the pseudo range and delta range measurements and precise time can be calculated. [0738]
Naturally occurring errors are, for the most part, slow changing and monotonic over the typical periods of concern. When SA is not invoked, delta range corrections provide a valid method of improving positional accuracy at the roving receivers using less frequent correction broadcasts. With the advent of SA and its random, quick changing non-monotonic characteristics, delta range corrections become somewhat meaningless and may actually degrade the system performance under some conditions. [0739]
As shown previously in FIG. 32, the DGPS correction messages are broadcast by the reference station and received by the roving receivers. The corrections are applied directly to the differential GPS receiver. The DGPS receiver calculates the pseudo range and the delta range measurements for each satellite in the usual manner. Prior to performing the navigation solution, the received pseudo range and delta range corrections are applied to the internal measurements. The receiver then calculates corrected position, velocity and time data. Typical DGPS position and velocity performance is presented in the table below. [0740]
COMPARISON OF TYPICAL GPS POSITION AND VELOCITY [0741]
MEASUREMENTS USING COMMERCIAL NAVIGATION TYPE RECEIVERS [0742]
(ACCURACIES ARE A FUNCTION OF CORRECTION AGE) [0743]

THIS EXAMPLE USES CORRECTION AGE=5 SECONDS

COMPARISON OF TYPICAL GPS POSITION AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS

USING COMMERCIAL NAVIGATION TYPE RECEIVERS (ACCURACIES

ARE A FUNCTION OF CORRECTION AGE) THIS EXAMPLE USES

CORRECTION AGE = 5 SECONDS

WITHOUT DGPS

WITH DGPS

	CODE RCVR	CARRIER RCVR	CODE RCVR	CARRIER RCVR

2-D POSITION	<100	M	<40	M	<10	M	<2	M
3-D POSITION	<176	M	<80	M	<18	M	<4	M
VELOCITY knots	<10	KN	<5	KN	<.1	KN	<.1	KN
TIME*	<300	ns	<100	ns	<100	ns	<50	ns

Since differential GPS eliminates most GPS errors, it provides significant improvements in system reliability for life critical airport operations. Short term and long term drift of the satellite orbits, clocks and naturally occurring phenomenon are compensated for by differential GPS as are other potential GPS satellite failures. Differential GPS is mandatory in the airport environment from a reliability, accuracy and fault compensating perspective. [0745]
As with autonomous GPS receiver operation, multipath is a potential problem. The differential reference station cannot correct for multipath errors at the roving receiver(s). Antenna design and placement considerations, and receiver design characteristics remain the best solutions to date in the minimization of multipath effects. [0746]
DGPS provides the means to eliminate most GPS system errors. The remaining errors are related to receiver design and multipath. Not all GPS receivers and reference stations are created equal, some are distinctly better than others. The selection of the reference station and the roving receivers has a significant effect on the overall system accuracy. [0747]

Compensating for Receiver Error

Receiver errors are not corrected using an ‘open loop’ differential correction method as described above. These errors may be reduced when a ‘closed loop’ differential technique is employed. FIG. 33 presents a high level block diagram of a ‘closed loop’ differential system. [0748]
FIG. 33 has additional elements over the standard differential system configuration. A second GPS antenna is installed at a precisely surveyed antenna location and a stationary GPS receiver is co-located with the reference station. This receiver accepts differential correction inputs generated by the reference station. The stationary GPS receiver incorporates the pseudo range corrections in the normal manner and determines DGPS position and velocity. The corrected position and velocity are then compared to the stationary receivers known position and velocity ([0749] 0,0,0). The ECEF delta position and velocity data are then used by the reference station processing to further refine the pseudo range and delta range corrections which are broadcast to the roving receivers. Processing software which minimizes the position and velocity errors is used. This technique requires that the roving receivers be identical to the stationary GPS receiver located at the reference station site. That is, the roving receivers must exhibit receiver errors similar to those on the stationary DGPS receiver.
INTEGRITY AND MULTI-SENSOR SYSTEMS [0750]
The issues of integrity and fault monitoring are a major concerns for any technology considered for the life critical application of air transport and air traffic control. The integration of GPS with other technologies provides a higher degree of fault detection capability, a potentially improved GPS navigational performance, and the potential of limited navigation support should a catastrophic GPS failure occur aboard the vehicle. [0751]
The integration of GPS with an inertial system can be used to improve the dynamic performance of the navigation solution. Dynamic sensors may provide jerk, acceleration and velocity information to aid in the navigation solution. Sole means inertial navigation may be used in conjunction with GPS. The integration of GPS with inertial systems usually require 12 (or higher) state Kalman filter solutions techniques . [0752]
The concept of Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is accepted as a potential integrity monitoring system. The RAIM concept requires that the GPS receiver and/or navigation system include the required “smarts” to diagnose its own health using additional satellites, redundant hardware and specialized internal software processing. RAIM standards are currently being developed for industry approval. [0753]
When combined with other sensors such as WAAS, inertial, baro altimeter and internal RAIM processing, GPS will have superior accuracy, fault tolerance and fault detection capability. [0754]
FAULT TOLERANCE AND HIGH AVAILABILITY [0755]
Any system which controls life critical operations at an airport must support fault tolerance and high availability. At the same time, the system must be cost effective and support technology insertion. High system availability may be achieved through a custom design process utilizing selected and screened components for high Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF). Alternatively, high availability may be achieved through system redundancy using components of non-custom, commercial-off-the- shelf design. The following paragraphs introduce a few of the concepts which are later utilized in the system design analysis. [0756]
AVAILABILITY: Availability is defined as the probability that a system will operate to specification at any point in time, when supported with a specific level of maintenance and spares. [0757]
MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURES (MTBF): The mean time a piece of equipment will remain operational before it is expected to fail. [0758]
RELIABILITY: The inherent probability that a piece of equipment or hardware will remain operational for a period of time (t). It is expressed as follows:[0759]
−(t/MBTF)
R(t)=e
TRAVEL TIME: The travel time is measured from the time of failure to the time the repair technician and required spare parts arrive at the failed equipment. [0760]
MEAN TIME TO RECONFIGURE (MTTC): The mean time a system is inoperable as measured from the time of failure to the time of full operation. Typically, reconfiguration time involves bringing on line redundant systems in an effort to provide continued service. [0761]
MEAN TIME TO REPAIR AND CERTIFY (MTTRC): The mean time of the actual repair and recertification activities as measured from the time of arrival of the failed equipment to the time which the equipment is on line, certified and declared operational. [0762]
MEAN TIME TO REPAIR (NMR): MTTR is the sum of TRAVEL+MTTC+MTTRC. [0763]
AVAILABILITY EXAMPLE [0764]
The following analysis builds upon elements of the system composed of off the shelf components arranged in a redundant configuration. Commercial industrial single board computers are connected with other commercial elements in the manner as shown in the FIGS. 28, 29, [0765] 30. This approach provides cost effectiveness, COTS technology insertion, declining COTS life cycle costs and high availability. The analysis starts with no design redundancy FIG. 28, and ends describing a two controller station redundant architecture FIG. 30.

This example will determine the overall reliability and availability of the architecture shown in FIG. 28. The requirement for system availability for this terminal area system comes from the FAA Advanced Automation Program (AAS). The AAS program defines the system yearly availability to be 0.99995 determined using a 2 hour travel time which is added to any other system down time. The major elements of the airport system shown in FIG. 28.



KEY OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS

AVAILABILITY *	AVAIL = 0.99995
TRAVEL TIME (HRS) *	TRAVEL = 2.0
TIME TO AUTO CONFIGURE (HRS)	MTTC = .025 90 SECONDS
MEAN TIME TO REPAIR AND CERTIFY (HRS)	MTTRC = .25
(TESTED SPARES, FAULT ISOLATED TO LRU)

MEAN TIME TO REPAIR (MTTR)	MTTR = MTTRC + MTTC + TRAVEL MTTR = 2.275

Specific Component Parameters

[0767] SINGLE BOARD COMPUTER 142, 143 MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURES (FHRS)
SBC:=90000 $RSBC = e^{- \frac{YR}{SBC}} RSBC = 0.907254$
[0768] DIGITAL RADIO TRANSCEIVER 144 MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURES (HRS)
XCVR.=75000 $RXCVR = e^{- \frac{YR}{XCVR}} RXCVR = 0.889763$
[0769] TOUCH SCREEN 145 MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURES (HRS)
TOUCH.=100000 $RTOUCH = e^{- \frac{YR}{TOUCH}} RTOUCH = 0.916127$
LOW VOLTAGE [0770] DC POWER SUPPLY 146 MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURES (HRS)
LVPS.=500000 $RLVPS = e^{- \frac{YR}{LVPS}} RLVPS = 0.982633$
[0771] FLAT SCREEN DISPLAY 147 MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURES (HRS)
DIS=75000 $RDIS = e^{- \frac{YR}{DIS}} RDIS = 0.889763$
[0772] AIRPORT LIGHTING UNIT 148 MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURES (HRS)
Interface only, no light bulbs or individual light switches[0773]
LITE.=250000 $RLITE = e^{- \frac{YR}{LITE}} RLITE = 0.965567$
REDUNDANT ARRAY of INEXPENSIVE DISKS ([0774] RAID 149 MTBF (HRS)
RAID=150000 $RRAID = e^{- \frac{YR}{RAID}} RRAID = 0.943273$
[0775] LOCAL AREA NETWORK 150 MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURES (HRS)
LAN=87600 $RLAN = e^{- \frac{YR}{LAN}} RLAN = 0.904837$
[0776] KEYBOARD 151 MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURES (HRS)
KBD:=75000 $RKBD = e^{- \frac{YR}{KBD}} RKBD = 0.889763$
[0777] DIFFERENTIAL BASE STATION 152 MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURES (HRS)
DIFF.=100000 $RDIFF = e^{- \frac{YR}{DIFF}} RDIFF = 0.916127$
This particular analysis is for a single controller station, multiple stations could be used simply by duplicating the deign elements. The controller must have the following capabilities to perform his airport duties: [0778]
1. have full duplex voice and data communications [0779]
2. a controlling AC&M display and graphic display [0780]
3. a command touch screen capability or keyboard [0781]
4. differential GPS for all navigation [0782]
5. airport lighting interface (independent bulbs and switches may fail without loss of function) [0783]
The minimal set of controller actions require the following hardware and associated software to be operational. [0784]
1. radio transceiver (voice and data function) [0785]
2. AC&M display, SBC server, and RAID [0786]
3. Graphic display, SBC, [0787]
4. a low voltage power supply [0788]
5. a command and control touch screen or a keyboard [0789]
6. minimal configuration operational software [0790]
7. a LAN assembly [0791]
8. a differential GPS base station [0792]
9. a airport lighting interface [0793]
The hardware elements can be connected in a minimal hardware configuration and the overall availability can be compared to the specified value of 0.99995 [0794]
INITIAL SERIES RELIABILITY[0795]
RINT:=RSBC²·RXCVR·RTOUCH·RLVPS·RDIS²·RRAID RLAN·RDIFF·RLITE RKBD
RINT=0.350629
The initial MTBF for the series string is determined below. [0796] $MTBFINT = \frac{- (YR)}{\ln (RINT)} MTBFINT = 8358.56594$
Initial availability based upon series minimum configuration is [0797] $\frac{MTBFINT}{MTBFINT + MTTR} = 0.999728$
As expected availability does not meet the specification, system redundancy will be necessary to achieve the design goal. To meet the required availability a system MTBF of about 45,000 hours will be necessary with a 2.275 hour mean time to repair. A new architecture is shown in FIG. 29. [0798]
AIRPORT SYSTEM, SINGLE REDUNDANT CONTROLLER STATION [0799]
Redundant radio transceivers will be necessary since a single point failure is unacceptable in this component. Parallel radio transceiver reliability is determined below: [0800]
RXCVRP−RXCVR+RXCVR−RXCVRXCVR RXCVRP=0.987848
Redundant LVPS are required for the same reason. [0801]
RLVPSP RLVPS RLVPS (RLVPS·RLVPS) RLVPSP=0.999698 [0802]
Redundant Local Area Networks are also required, since a single point failure can not be tolerated in communications between the AC&M SBC and Graphic SBC. [0803]
RLANP=RLAN+RLAN−(RLAN·RLAN) RLANP=0.990944 [0804]
Redundant Differential GPS are also required, since a_single point failure can not be tolerated in airport navigation functions. [0805]
RDIFFP=RDIFF+RDIFF−(RDIFF·RDIFF) RDIFF=0.916127 [0806]
Redundant airport lighting control interfaces are required. [0807]
RLITEP=RLITE RLITE (RLITE·RLITE) RLITEP=0.99814 [0808]
The keyboard and the touch screen provide the same capability, hence may be treated as a parallel redundant system element. The keyboard/touch screen combination is found below: [0809]
RTOU_KBD=RKBD+RTOUCH−(RKBD·RTOUCH) RTOU_KBD=0.990754
An extra display surface will be added to display information. This display capability will be used should a failure occur in an AC&M display or in a graphic situation display. A [0810] 2 of 3 display scenario is used for successful mission completion. Should a failure occur auto reconfiguration must occur within the specified time allocation. To determine exactly what the 2 out of 3 display process represents, a probability analysis is performed. The probability is determined from the series elements which make up the display function. One display channel may fail while the two others provide the necessary information. The third display is used to provide non mission critical information when acting as a hot spare.
SERIES DISPLAY CHANNEL ELEMENTS [0811]
RSDIS=RDIS·RSBC·RRAID RSDIS=0.761448 [0812]
In the [0813] 2 of 3 scenario the possible operating combinations must add to one; meaning the probability of all of the possible operating modes must add to 1. The operating combinations are identified below:
1. all 3 serial display channels are operational [0814]
2. one channel is down and the other two are operational [0815]
3. two channels are down and only one is operating [0816]
4. all channels are down [0817]
UNRELIABILITY IS DEFINED AS:[0818]
Q.=1−RSDIS
THE PROBABILITY IS DEFINED BELOW:[0819]
RTOTAL=RSDIS ³+3·RSDIS ² ·Q+3·RSDIS·Q² +Q ³
RTOTAL=1 All combinations do add to 1
TWO OF THREE OPERATIONAL RELIABILITY IS [0820]
R2OF3=RSDIS³+3·RSDIS²·Q+0+0 R2OF3=0.856429
Now the overall system reliability and availability functions may be evaluated. [0821] $RFINAL := R2OF3 \cdot RXCVRP \cdot RLVPSP \cdot RTOU_KBD \cdot RLANP \cdot RDIFFP \cdot RLITEP$ $RFINAL = 0.82354$ $MTBFFIN = \frac{- (YR)}{\ln (RFINAL)} MTBFFIN = 45121.264957$ $FINALAV = \frac{MTBFFIN}{MTBFFIN + MTTR} FINALAV = 0.99995$
From a hardware perspective the system meets requirements. The system software must be able to detect hard and soft failures and must be able to fault isolate the failed device. Parallel hardware redundancy and “smart” software provide the necessary fault monitoring, fault containment and fault identification to the LRU level. Operational software is tailored to the specific application, but the hardware is based upon COTS standards to allow for future technology insertion and cost effective replacement. [0822]
Multiple controller stations may be added to support larger airport systems. In this case a slightly different architecture is utilized. Common elements are shared by multiple stations. In the [0823] 2 station architecture shown parallel differential GPS base stations, parallel lighting control interfaces, parallel Local Area Networks and parallel transceivers are utilized. Since a redundant capability is provided with multiple controller stations consisting of 2 of 3 scenario increased availability is provided as shown in FIG. 30.
THE RELIABILITY OF THE TWO CONTROLLER STATION IS FOUND BELOW [0824]
RSTAT=R2OF3·RTOU_KBD·RLVPSP RSTAT=0.848255

The Reliability of the Shared Elements Follows

REXT=RLVPSP·RXCVRP·RDIFFP·RLITEP·RLANP REXT=0.97057
RELIABILITY OF THE TWO [0825] PARALLEL 2 OF 3 CONTROLLER STATIONS IS
RSTATP=RSTAT+RSTAT−(RSTAT·RSTAT) RSTATP=0.976973 [0826]
RELIABILITY OF THE TWO CONTROLLER STATION AIRPORT SYSTEM IS [0827]
RTOT=RSTATP·REXT RTOT=0.948222 [0828]
SYSTEM TOTAL MTBF IS [0829] $MTBF = \frac{- (YR)}{\ln (RTOT)} MTBF = 164763.651199$
SYSTEM AVAILABILITY IS [0830] $AVAIL = \frac{MTBF}{MTBF + MTTR} AVAIL = 0.999986$
Further availabilty improvements and cost reduction may be realized when configured with multiple controller stations. The [0831] 2 of 3 display channel operation may be reduced to 2 single display channels and RAIDS may be eliminated while still meeting availability goals when operating with multiple redundant reconfigurable controller stations.
AIRPORT LAYOUT PLAN [0832]
The U.S. FAA recommends the development of digitized Airport Layout Plans (ALPs). In an ALP, the existing and proposed land and facilities required in the operation and development of the airport are provided in a scaled drawing. Each ALP should include the following information: [0833]
airport facilities—runways, taxiways, ramps, service roads, navigation aids, and buildings [0834]
airspace matters—existing and planned approach/missed approach/departure procedures, special use and controlled airspace, control zones and traffic patterns [0835]
obstructions to air and ground navigation [0836]
airport topography [0837]
precise airport monumentation [0838]
If designed properly, the ALP should be suitable for use in airport master plan activities, emergency work, maintenance, navigation and ATC. [0839]

GPS Compatible Monumentation

Airport ALP generation or mapping activities may use any number of map coordinate systems based on a number of earth datums or ellipsoid references. Standardization of the mapping techniques and references are key in the development of any successful multi-use mapping program. In addition to the selection of a standard reference system, the interface to the local area surrounding the airport must be addressed. Accurate cross referenced monumentation points are necessary to allow for a smooth transition between the local coordinate system and the one used in the airport maps or in the navigation system. In the U.S., local State Plane Coordinate Systems (SPCS) form the baseline for most local mapping activities. As such, the ALPs for all U.S. airports should be monumented with reference points to provide for accurate coordinate conversion between World Geodetic Survey of 1984 (WGS 84) Latitude—Longitude, Earth Centered Earth Fixed (ECEF) X, Y, Z and local SPCSs or Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM). GPS and conventional survey techniques are recommended for such monumentation. [0840]
The surveyed accuracy of the multi-use airport map is recommended to be better than 0.5 meters for the horizontal and 0.1 meter for elevation. Of particular interest are the Airport Runway Touch Down Marker Reference Points (the precise coordinates of the center of a runway's touch down marker) and the Airport Runway Reference Points (the precise coordinates along the centerline path of the runway). In addition, the precise locations of all turn outs and turn ins should be identified in the airport map database. [0841]
Earth reference systems used in these locations should be ECEF X,Y,Z, North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83) or [0842] WGS 84 latitude, longitude, MSL. These three models are compatible with GPS-based navigation. Should the positions not be in one of these coordinate reference systems, then local airport multi-coordinate reference monumentation should be used to support the required coordinate conversions.
Airport map latitude, longitude projections should be based upon the Transverse Mercator, Lambert Conformal Conic, or Hotine Oblique Mercator These projections are used in state plane coordinate systems. Additional information on reference systems and projections is available in North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83), by Charles R. Schwartz. [0843]

The Manchester, N.H. (NH) airport map used in numerous test activities was initially in NH State Plane Coordinate System feet. This coordinate system was chosen for compatibility with existing maps and because it represented distances in linear feet rather than in degrees of latitude and longitude. The map was later converted to NH state plane meters and ECEF X,Y,Z representations. Manchester Airport was carefully surveyed and monumentation was performed at multiple sites around the airport. The monumented points were referenced to the ECEF Cartesian Coordinate System, NAD 83 Latitude, Longitude and Mean Sea Level (MSL), and the NH State Plane. Coordinate conversions were performed using the monumented points shown below.



MULTI-REFERENCE MONUMENTATION

FLAGPOLE

RUNWAY

35 END
	MONUMENT SITE #1	MONUMENT SITE #2

NEW HAMPSHIRE STATE PLANE COORDINATES

NH SPCS X = 1045137.57 FT E	NH SPCS X = 1048524.02 FT E
NH SPCS Y = 158006.05 FT N	NH SPCS Y = 154481.07 FT N
NH ALT = 225.04 FT	NH ALT = 215.73 FT
NH ALT = 68.59	M NH ALT = 65.75 M

NAD83 LAT, LON, MSL

LAT83 = 42.933325800 N	LAT83 = 42.923628275 N
LON83 = 71.439298894 W	LON83 = 71.426691202 W
MSL = 225.04 FT	MSL = 215.73 FT
MSL ALT = 68.59 M	MSL ALT = 65.75 M

ECEF X, Y, Z COORDINATES

ECEF X = 1488741.9 M	ECEF X = 1489950.5 M
ECEF Y = − 4433764.7 M	ECEF Y = − 4434130.5 M
ECEF Z = 4322109.2 M	ECEF Z = 4321318.4 M
GEOID HT = − 28.24 M	GEOID HT = − 28.24 M
WGS ALT = 40.35 M	WGS ALT = 37.51 M

North American Datum of 1983

[0845] NAD 83 is a reference datum for the earth replacing the North American Datum of 1927 (NAD 27). It was developed over many years through international efforts of many people. It was the largest single project ever undertaken by the National Geodetic Survey (NGS), spanning 12 years.
The task involved 1,785,772 survey observations at 266,436 sites in North and Central America, Greenland and the Caribbean Islands. The observations were made with all types of survey and measurement equipment from satellites to tape measures. The ultimate task was to develop an earth model which satisfied a set of 1,785,722 simultaneous equations. The task was performed using a least squares approach and Helmert blocking. The purpose was to update [0846] NAD 27, calculate geoid heights at 193,241 control points and the deflections of vertical at the control points.
The [0847] NAD 83 reference uses the Geodetic Reference System of 1980 (GRS 80) ellipsoid based on the Naval Surface Warfare Center 9Z-2 (NSWC 9Z-2) doppler measurements. The ellipsoid is positioned to be geocentric and have cartesian coordinate orientation consistent with the definition of Bureau International de l'Heure (BIH) Terrestrial System of 1984.
[0848] NAD 83 data sheets contain information to update North American 1927 references. The data sheets contain new information which is relevant for precise surveys and users of GPS equipment. These include: precise latitude and longitude [DDD MM SS.sssss], latitude—longitude shift in seconds of degree from NAD 27 to NAD 83, elevation above the geoid with standard error, geoid height and standard error, state plane and Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates.
These fundamental corrections and ellipsoid constants are the basic parameters used in many coordinate conversions and navigational programs and form the basis of modem survey measurements. [0849]

GRS 80 used by NAD 83 has the following fundamental parameters:

NAD 83 PARAMETERS

PARAMETER	VALUE	UNITS

Semimajor axis*	6378137	M
Angular velocity*	7292115 × 10⁻¹¹	RAD/SEC
Gravitational constant*	3986005 × 10⁸	M³/SEC²
Dynamic form factor	108263 × 10⁻⁸
unnormalized
Semiminor axis*	6356752.314	M
Eccentricity squared	0.00669438002290
Flattening	0.00335281068118
Polar Radius of Curvature*	6399593.625	M

World Geodetic Survey of 1984

[0851] WGS 84 was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense. The reference system started with the same initial BIH conventions as NAD 83 but, over the development, some parameters changed slightly. The geocentric ECEF system is based on a cartesian coordinate system with its origin at the center of mass of the earth. The system defines the X and Y axis to be in the plane of the equator with the X axis anchored 0.554 arc seconds east of 0 longitude meridian and the Y axis rotated 90 degrees east of the X axis. The Z axis extends through the axis of rotation of the earth. The WGS 84 reference uses the GRS 80 ellipsoid as does NAD 83. WGS 84 includes slight changes to GRS 80 parameters which are identified below:

WGS 84 Parameters

WGS 84 PARAMETERS

PARAMETER	VALUE	UNITS

Semimajor axis*	6378137	M
Angular velocity*	7292115 × 10^{− 11}	RAD/SEC
Gravitational constant*	3986005 × 10⁸	M³/SEC²
Dynamic form factor normalized	−484.16685 × 10⁻⁶
Semiminor axis*	6356752.314	M
Eccentricity squared	0.00669437999013
Flattening	0.00335281066474
Polar Radius of Curvature*	6399593.625	M

Comparison of NAD 83 and WGS 84

The North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83) and World Geodetic Survey of 1984 (WGS 84) attempt to describe the surface of the earth from two different perspectives. NM) 83 describes the surface of North America using the Geodetic Reference System of 1980 (GRS 80) ellipsoid and over 1.7 million actual measurements. A least squares Helmert blocking analysis was performed by National Geodetic Survey (NGS) on these measurements to determine the best fit solution to the actual measurements. NM) 83 uses monumented reference points across the country to precisely reference various coordinate systems such as the State Plane Coordinate Systems. [0853] WGS 84 incorporates positional references using GPS and local references. Position determination by GPS incorporates precise Keplerian orbital mechanics and radio positioning technology. Clearly, the two systems are describing the same thing, but the methods of determining a position are different.
Both [0854] NAD 83 and WGS 84 are based on BIF conventions. Though both are based on the GRS 80 ellipsoid, small changes have occurred between the two systems during their development. The basic difference in the dynamic form factor was attributed to GRS 80 using the unnormalized form while WGS 84 used a normalized form and rounded to eight significant figures. Since other parameters derived from the dynamic form factor differences usually appear after the eighth decimal place, most experts feel that the computational differences are of no significance.
Computations to determine the latitude and longitude from ECEF X,Y,Z coordinates highlight the small difference in the two reference systems. It has been shown that the maximum error between the two reference systems occurs at a latitude of 45 degrees. (Refer to North American Datum of 1983, Charles R. Schwartz) No error occurs between the two systems in the determination of longitude. The maximum error amounts to 0.000003 seconds of arc which amounts to a latitude shift of 0.0001 meters. For all practical purposes, the computational differences between the two systems are negligible. This is an important point for, if the two earth models differed in basic latitude and kogitude computations, serious charting and navigational problems would occur and GPS navigation based on [0855] NAD 83 referenced maps would be seriously limited.
Both [0856] WGS 84 and NAD 83 have many common points used as local reference points. The differences between the two systems may reach several meters in rare locations, but on the average the systems should be identical. Generally, measurement errors and equipment inaccuracies introduce more error than the differences in the two systems.
For airport mapping and GPS navigation we can assume that errors due to the differences between the [0857] NAD 83 and WGS 84 ellipsoid models are negligible. This implies that either system can be used in calculating navigational entities and performing precise mapping with GPS navigation. The monumented New Hampshire points established on NAD 83 near the airport are well within the measurement accuracy of the GPS survey and navigation equipment. The documented offsets between NAD 83 and WGS 84 for New Hampshire are 0.0 meters in the Y direction and −0.5 meters in the X direction.
PHOTOGRAMMETRY [0858]
Photogrammetry techniques incorporating ground reference point(s) are recommended for creating electronic ALP's. Various techniques may be employed to generate digital ALP's including aerial photogrammetry and ground based moving platforms with integrated video cameras and sensors. The collected image data may be post processed to produce a highly accurate 2 or 3-D digital map of the surrounding area. [0859]
A digital map of Manchester (NH) Airport was created to support early test activities. The digital map was based on aerial photogrammetry and GPS ground control using postprocessing software. A Wild Heerbrugg aerial camera equipped with forward motion compensation was used to capture the photogrammetry. The 3-D digitalization was performed using a Zeiss stereoscopic digitizing table. During the digitalization process, numerous object oriented map layers were constructed to segregate various types of map information. The resulting 3-D digital map had a relative horizontal accuracy of better than 1.0 meter and a relative vertical accuracy of better than 0.1 meter across the airport. [0860]
3-D GRAPHICS FORMATS [0861]
Many digital map formats are in widespread use today. Translators are available to convert from one computer format to another. Maps may be in either raster format (such as those generated by image scanning) or vector format (those developed on CAD and digitizing equipment). The vector format provides a much more robust environment for developers of ATC and map display systems. Vector based drawings are represented by individual vectors which can be controlled and modified individually or collectively. This enables the developer to manage these entities at a high level rather than at the individual pixel level. The vectors may represent specific geographical features (entities) in the map which may be assigned to a particular map layer in a particular user defined color. [0862]
Since the map and ATC situation display are in a vector format, a convenient method of graphically identifying and manipulating information is available. The selection of a graphical symbol on the screen through the use of a pointing device can be used to access an entity-related database or initiate an entity-based processing function. With raster-based images, there is no simple way to segregate the various pieces of map or graphic information for high level management. [0863]
Raster formats represent a series of individual pixels, each pixel controlled as a function of a series of control bits. Typically a series of three (3) words are used to describe the Red, Green and Blue (RGB) intensity of each pixel. Each pixel of information represents the smallest piece of the image and has no information about the larger graphical entity that it is part of. From a management perspective, this introduces additional complications for even the simplest graphical manipulation tasks such as suppressing the display of a series of raster based topographical contour lines in the airport map. [0864]
A high level management capability is required for ALP graphic entity control. The current raster-based maps do not provide this functionality, hence additional processing is required each time the map is displayed or modified. For raster-based maps to provide this capability, the pixel elements must be functionally organized in some manner to support the higher level management functions described in this application. For this reason, raster scan map formats are not recommended for ALPs at this time. [0865]

Vector formats may be in ASCII or binary and may be constructed using different rules for their generation. The example below uses the AutoCADTM DXF standard drawing format. (AutoCAD is a registered trademark of AUTODESK, Inc.) AutoCADTM is one of the most popular Computer Aided Design (CAD) software packages in the world today and is typical of vector ALP formats. The DXF map format may be easily converted to almost any CAD drawing format.

AUTOCADTM DXF ALP FORMAT

	NEW HAMPSHIRE STATE
	PLANE	ECEF X, Y, Z
	FEET	METERS

	3DFACE	3DFACE

	8	8
	BUILDING	BUILDING
	10	10
	1046289.75	1489279.59
	20	20
	154935.219	−4434265.78
	30	30
	256.499	4321428.53
	11	11
	1046289.75	1489277.26
	21	21
	154935.219	−4434258.83
	31	31
	223.7	4321421.72
	12	12
	1046245.375	1489258.04
	22	22
	155032.25	−4434243.98
	32	32
	223.7	4321443.43
	13	13
	1046245.375	1489260.37
	23	23
	155032.25	−4434250.92
	33	33
	256.499	4321450.24
	0	0

The two formats shown above represent the vertical side of a building which is, by AutoCADTM convention, a 3-D face. Since the two coordinate systems are different, one must appropriately set the respective viewpoint for each display. This is accomplished in the initial ALP DXF configuration declarations. In a similar fashion, the drawing could be converted to other coordinate systems such as Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) using a DXF coordinate conversion utility program such as TRALAINE™ (available from Mentor Software, Thornton, Colo. [0867]
The above example represents just one of the thousands of entities making up an ALP. Many commercial graphical libraries and commercial CAD software products are available today for the construction and use of ALPs and other 3-D graphic entities. [0868]
The use of modern digital Computer Aided Design (CAD) techniques is required for the development of electronic map databases. The use of GPS-based, ground referenced photogrammetry with [0869] post processing 2 or 3-D digitalization provides a cost effective, highly accurate and automated method of constructing the 2 or 3-D ALP.
An industry or international standard format for the construction and interchange of digital graphical information should be used. Numerous standards are established with readily available software translators for conversions between the various formats. Map file formats may be binary or ASCII characters. [0870]

3-D Object Oriented Map Layers

When stored in a digital format, the ALP should be arranged in object oriented map layers. Proper layering of information provides the capability to present only the information that is needed for a particular purpose. For example, navigational maps should not necessarily include all the digital layers of the ALP. A simplified version of the map showing only runways, taxiways, navigational references (landmarks) and gate areas should be used. The use of specific layers of interest provides the following advantages: [0871]
minimizes possible confusion in presenting too much information to the pilot or controller [0872]
decreases reaction times of controller and pilot by only presenting what is needed [0873]
reduces computer memory requirements [0874]
minimizes computer processing requirements [0875]
provides faster display updates (fewer pixels to redraw) [0876]

3-D Digital Map Coordinate Systems

In order to integrate GPS navigational data with 2 or 3-D maps, the potential map formats must be evaluated for compatibility and ease of use with the navigational output and coordinate reference system. The table below lists twelve of the most likely combinations.

COMBINATIONS OF MAPS, NAVIGATIONAL PARAMETERS

AND MATHEMATICAL COORDINATE REFERENCES

		MATHE-
		MATICAL
		NAVI-
	DIGITAL	GATIONAL	COORDINATE
#	MAP FORMAT	I/O FORMAT	REFERENCE

1.	LAT, LON,	LAT, LON,	LAT, LON,
	MSL	MSL	MSL
2.*	LAT, LON,	LAT, LON,	ECEF
	MSL	MSL

3.	LAT, LON,	STATE	ECEF
	MSL	PLANE/UTM
4.	LAT, LON,	ECEF	ECEF
	MSL

5.	STATE	STATE	STATE
	PLANE/UTM	PLANE/UTM	PLANE/UTM
6.	STATE	LAT, LON,	LAT, LON,
	PLANE/UTM	MSL	MSL
7.*	STATE	LAT, LON,	ECEF
	PLANE/UTM	MSL
8.	STATE	ECEF	ECEF
	PLANE/UTM
9.	ECEF	ECEF	ECEF
10.*	ECEF	LAT, LON,	ECEF
		MSL

11.	ECEF	LAT, LON,	LAT, LON,
		MSL	MSL
12.	ECEF	STATE	STATE
		PLANE/UTM	PLANE/UTM

Other permutations are possible for the different combinations of coordinate systems, map references and navigational output formats. Other combinations can be “made to work”, but based on arithmetic precision, map availability and software complexity, the combinations identified with an asterisk satisfy the evaluation criteria most effectively. [0878]

The table below presents a compliancy matrix, where each of the twelve combinations are evaluated against a set of criteria. The criteria used are described in greater detail following the table.



COMPLIANCY MATRIX

*

MAPPING FORMAT:

-1-

-2-

-3-

-4-

-5-

-6-

-7-

-8-

-9-

10-

11-

12

EXISTING MAP DATA

Y

N

RECOGNIZABLE MAP

Y

N

CONV. SW EXISTS

Y

EASY 3D - 2D CONV

Y

N

MULTI-USE FORMAT

Y

N

WORLD WIDE SYSTEM

Y

N

Y

LINEAR SYSTEM

N

Y

GPS COMPATIBLE

Y

N

Y

SEAMLESS SYSTEM

N

Y

NAV INPUT-OUTPUT:

-1-

-2-

-3-

-4-

-5-

-6-

-7-

-8-

-9-

10-

11-

12

RECOGNIZABLE

Y

N

Y

N

Y

N

ACCEPTED STANDARD

Y

N

Y

N

Y

N

WORLD WIDE USE

Y

N

Y

N

Y

N

GPS COMPATIBLE

Y

N

Y

N

Y

N

CHARTS AVAILABLE

Y

N

Y

N

Y

COORD REFERENCE:

-1-

-2-

-3-

-4-

-5-

-6-

-7-

-8-

-9-

10-

11-

12

RECOGNIZABLE REF.

Y

N

Y

N

Y

WORLD WIDE USE

Y

N

Y

N

SIMPLE NAV. MATH.

N

Y

N

Y

N

Y

NAD83 & WGS84 REF

Y

SINGLE 3D ORIGIN

N

Y

N

Y

N

LINEAR SYSTEM

N

Y

N

Y

N

Y

UNITS OF DISTANCE

N

Y

N

Y

N

Y

*

TOTAL YES COUNT:

-1-

-2-

-3-

-4-

-5-

-6-

-7-

-8-

-9-

10-

11

12

15

18

13

15

12

14

17

14

13

16

13

11



	CRITERIA DEFINITIONS

MAPPING:
COMPATIBILITY WITH	Existing digital map data
EXISTING MAP DATA	is available for the
	airport and surrounding area.
RECOGNIZABLE MAP	A map which is instantly
	recognizable, one which
	resembles the surface on
	which we live. The
	map should not need to
	be differentially corrected
	from the reference geoid.
CONVERSION SW EXISTS	Commercially available
	software exists to convert
	from one 3-D map reference
	system to the other
EASY 3D - 2D	Digital map presentations
CONVERSION	can be easily converted from
	3-D to 2-D by setting the
	altitude to zero without
	any additional mathematical
	conversions in the raw map
	data or in the 3-D graphical
	interface.
MULTI-USE FORMAT	The map data is in a standard
	format which can satisfy
	multi-use needs such as Master
	Plans, construction needs,
	ATC and general navigation.
WORLD WIDE SYSTEM	References in the map are
	with respect to world wide
	datums and accepted world
	wide mapping units.
LINEAR SYSTEM	The axes and units of
	the map are linear and
	represent distance.
GPS COMPATIBLE	Mapping units and presenta-
	tions are directly
	compatible with existing
	GPS receiver output
	formats and calculation
	references.
SEAMLESS SYSTEM	Maps do not have mathematical/
	physical discontinuity,
	the map format must be
	seamless on a world wide
	basis. For example UTM maps
	do not cover polar regions
	and map edges do not match
	on 6 degree boundaries
	when placed together.
NAVIGATIONAL OUTPUT:
RECOGNIZABLE	The final navigational
	output should be instantly
	recognizable; i.e. if LAT, LON,
	MSL output is used, one can
	instantly visualize a location
	on the earth, while if ECEF
	outputs are given it is difficult
	to visually picture a point in
	space.
ACCEPTED STANDARD	Navigational format is an
	accepted standard;
	i.e. LAT, LON, MSL
WORLD WIDE USE	The navigational format is
	usable over the entire world.
GPS COMPATIBLE	Navigational format is
	compatible with existing
	GPS receiver outputs.
CHARTS AVAILABLE	Paper and digital charts
	are available.
COORDINATE REFERENCE:
WORLD WIDE USE	The coordinate reference
	system is recognized
	throughout the world.
SIMPLE NAVIGATION	The coordinate system lends
MATHEMATICS	itself to simple linear
	navigational mathematics.
NAD83 AND WGS84 REF.	The reference system is
	compatible with North
	American Datum of 1983 and
	World Geodetic Survey of 1984.
SINGLE ORIGIN	The system has one and
	only one origin.
LINEAR SYSTEM	The system is a linear
	coordinate system.
UNITS OF DISTANCE	The coordinate system is based
	on units of distance rather
	than angle.

To illustrate the differences between GPS trajectories displayed in maps using different coordinate systems, the following plot examples are provided. FIG. 12 shows a plan view of latitude versus longitude. FIG. 14 shows the same trajectory in ECEF X and Y coordinates. FIG. 13 depicts the MSL Altitude versus Time while FIG. 15 shows the ECEF X values versus Time. Note the distortion between the latitude, longitude, MSL altitude and the ECEF X,Y, and Z coordinates. (The small rectangles on each plot represent waypoints along the trajectory path.) [0881]
Plotting points in the map database requires that the navigational computations provide output which is compatible with the map database coordinates. [0882] Combination # 7 in the previous Table includes a map database which is in a State Plane Coordinate System and a navigational output in latitude, longitude and MSL. Additional conversions are required to convert the navigational data to state plane coordinates prior to plotting the points in the map database. A more convenient map, navigational and coordinate reference frame is required.

ALP Summary and Recommendations

Future airport maps or modifications to existing maps should make every attempt to utilize recent technological advances in their construction. The following items are guidelines for future map development: [0883]
Precise, 3-D airport maps (ALPs) should be created and maintained for all major and reliever airports. [0884]
ALPs should be constructed to satisfy multiple user requirements. [0885]
Electronic graphical design tools should be used in ALP construction. Computer Aided Design tools should be used wherever possible. [0886]
Standard graphical formats (either ASCII character or industry standard binary file formats) should be used. [0887]
The concept of electronic layers should be used to identify and isolate entities in the map database. [0888]
Airport Reference Points (ARPs) should be located at precisely monumented positions around the airport. ARPs should be referenced to the coordinate systems of interest (such as LAT,LON,MSL, ECEF X,Y,Z and the SPCS). [0889]
At least three (3) ARPs, located within the airport confines in areas which are not likely to be disturbed, are recommended. Where possible, these points should be placed in the far comers of the airport to form a triangle. These points should be surveyed with GPS based survey equipment and monumented physically on the ground and within the digital map database. [0890]
ARPs should be recomputed as necessary to assure accuracy of the navigation and ATC functions. Re-monumentation may be required as a part of airport construction and expansion. Natural phenomena such as plate tectonics, may force re-monumentation of the airport. When ARP positions change more than 0.5 meters horizontally and 0.1 meters vertically, re-monumentation is recommended. [0891]
Areas used by aircraft such as runways, taxiways, gate areas and ramps should be surveyed to a horizontal accuracy of 0.5 meters horizontally and elevation to 0.1 meters. [0892]
The use of photogrammetry is suggested as an efficient means of creating a digital database of an existing airport. [0893]
Earth reference systems used for the various map projections should be the [0894] NAD 83 or WGS 84. Older, previously accepted datums which do not correlate with GPS navigation or surveys should be avoided.
ALPs should be compatible with cockpit instrumentation and ATC databases. [0895]
GPS calibration areas should be located at all gates or areas where aircraft remain stationary. These areas should be identified in the airport digital map. The purpose of the calibration area is to allow the pilot to check the accuracy of the on board GPS equipment. [0896]
Cost effective and highly accurate mapping technology is available to allow for the generation of multi-use maps which should be compatible with a host of platforms and potential uses. The exploitation of these common use maps will enhance master planning, aviation and Air Traffic Control (ATC) capabilities. Maps developed to national standards will provide a cost effective navigational and ATC data base. [0897]
SUMMARY, RAMIFICATION AND SCOPE [0898]
The presented invention provides a valuable enhancement to the current airport environment. This enhancement will result in safer air travel and more efficient operation of our currently capacity limited airports. Human blunders in the cockpit and in the control tower have cost hundred of lives in the past. Seamless airport operations will result in lower air traffic controller and pilot workloads through the use of automation processing. Advanced situational awareness displays showing travel paths, and clearance compatible mirrored navigation automation processing will reduce the likelihood of human blunders in the control tower and in the cockpit resulting in a safer airport environment. The elimination of out dated single function navigation and surveillance systems will result in significant cost savings for the airport authority and the FAA. The cost effective nature of this GNSS based airport control and management system will allow deployment at smaller airports resulting in safer operations and better on time performance throughout the whole aviation system. [0899]
It is obvious that minor changes may be made in the form and construction of the invention without departing from the material spirit thereof. It is not, however, desired to confine the invention to the exact form herein shown and described, but is desired to include all such a properly come within the scope claimed. [0900]

Claims

1. A GNSS compatible airport control and management method providing a computer human interface for use by a controller in the monitoring, control and management of at least one vehicle selected from the group comprising aircraft and ground vehicles the system comprising the steps of:

(a) displaying on at least one display device interfaced to an airport control and management processor with data entry capability means at least one airport control and management command of a plurality of commands selected from the group consisting of Display View, Arrival Waypoints, Departure Waypoints, Vehicle Data and Airport Lights;

(b) determining in said airport control and management processor the ascertained position of said at least one vehicle, said position being GNSS referenced;

(c) using said data entry capability means to allow a controller to select said at least one airport control and management command and

(d) using said display means to present on said at least one display device said at least one vehicle's ascertained position to the controller, thus allowing the controller to monitor the position of said at least one vehicle.

2. A GNSS compatible airport control and management method according to claim 1, wherein said ascertained position is derived from a surveillance system selected from the group comprising automatic dependent surveillance, radar surveillance and Mode S surveillance.

3. A GNSS compatible airport control and management method as recited in claim 2, wherein said ascertained position is derived from Mode S multi-lateration.

4. A GNSS compatible airport control and management method as recited in claim 2, further comprising:

(a) using said display means to present said display view command on said at least one display device;

(b) using said data entry capability means to allow a controller to select said display view command, resulting in the presentation of a list of graphic views on said at least one display device;

(c) using said data entry capability means to allow a controller to select a particular graphic view from said list of graphic views resulting in said display means presenting said selected graphic view on said at least one display device.